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cause_n great_a place_n see_v 2,893 5 3.1798 3 true
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ID Title Author Corrected Date of Publication (TCP Date of Publication) STC Words Pages
A52266 An introduction to the art of logick composed for the use of English schools, and all such who having no opportunity of being instructed in the Latine tongue ... / by John Newton ... Newton, John, 1622-1678. 1671 (1671) Wing N1063; ESTC R20761 67,588 216

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is demonstrated are made first by joyning the cause with the effect and then by joyning the cause with the subject In all these two things are to be considered the precognitions which precede the demonstration and the conditions which are to be observed in the demonstration it self 11. The Precognitions are two 1. That the thing is 2. what it is 12. In these precognitions the things which are evident and obvious unto all are so in the understanding only but the things which are not so evident but that they may be unknown are expressed in the very beginning of sciences 13. And if being delivered the learner doth presently believe them they are properly called fuppositions but if the learner either doubt of them or be of another opinion they are called postulata or things to which an assent is requested 14. The first of these precognitions viz. the Quod sit That the thing is includeth two things 1. That the thing sougt hath a being or a true existence and this answereth to the Question Is there such a thing 2. That the thing sought is the true predicate in a subject 15. The other of these precognitions namely the Quid sit What it is doth also include two things 1. The name or what the signification of the name is 2. The nature of the thing that is called by that name so that from these two precognitions four questions do arise of which two are simple and two compounded 16. The simple questions are those which do equally agree to accidents and to substances The first is made concerning the essence or existence by asking An sit whether it be or not The second maketh inquiry concerning the nature of it and asketh Quid sit What it is 17. The compounded questions cheifly agree with accidents the first asketh whether the predicate be in the subject as whether man be risible The other asketh why the predicate is in the subject as why is man risible 18. Of these four questions the third hath such reference to the fourth as the first hath to the second for then in simple terms when we know they have being we ask what the things are and in propositions when we know they have a being we inquire why they are 19. After these precognitions and questions the three praecognita are next to be considered namely the subject affection and cause 20. The subject is a simple term or less extream in the demonstration concerning which some accident is demonstrated by its next cause as a man concerning whom we must both know that he is and what he is First that he is or otherwise we seek the knowledg of him in vain for there is no knowledge of a thing that is not and then we must also know what he is not only in respect of his name but also of his nature for that must be the medium of the demonstration and we must know the medium at least confusedly before we can infer the conclusion The precognition of the things existence is called the Hypothesis of its nature the Definition 21. Passion is a proper Accident which is demonstrated of the subject by the proper cause it is always the greater extream which is predicated in the conclusion as Risibility the which is necessary to be foreknown in respect of the name what it is though not in respect of its nature and that it be considered how it is inherent for seeing it supplies the place of the subject it is in some sort called a substance Arist lib. 1. post cap. 27. but it is not foreknown That it is for that is the thing inquired after and which we are to find by demonstration 22. A Cause is that by which the passion or affection is demonstrated of its subject and is always the Major proposition of the demonstration as Every rational animal is risible that being known the conclusion is vertually known also as being vertually conteined in it but yet it is not actually known till the Minor be assumed which being known the Conclusion though after in nature yet is known at the same time also What the cause is cannot be foreknown because it is a compounded proposition and what a thing is is only of uncompounded but it ought to be known That it is or hath a true existence or else the Conclusion cannot be inferred from it CHAP. VII Of the Conditions to be observed in a perfect Demonstration A Demonstration is to be considered either in the respect of the matter or in respect of the form 2. In respect of the matter one kind of Demonstration sheweth why the predicate is inherent in the subject and that 1. By an immediate intrinsecal cause and this is either the before demonstrated matter or form or affection of the subject 2. By an immediate extrinsecal cause and this is either final or efficient by some transient action 3. Another kind of Demonstration in respect of the matter sheweth that the predicate is inherent in the subject and that either by the effect or by some remote cause 4. A Demonstration in respect of the form is to be considered 1. In quantity and so it is universal or particular 2. In quality and so it is affirmative or negative 3. In the manner of the proof and so it is either an ostensive demonstration or a demonstration reducing to some impossible thing 5. In the first of these kinds of demonstration called the demonstration Cur sit why a thing is the conditions to be observed do partly belong to the question partly to the cause or medium of the demonstration and partly to the premisses 6. Every question doth not admit of the first and most perfect kind of demonstration called why a thing is but such a question only as is true and hath a certain and immutable cause of its own truth 7. The conditions to be observed in the premisses of a demonstration are absolute or relative 8. Those are said to be absolute conditions which are suitable to the premisses considered absolutely and in themselves and those are said to be relative conditions which are suitable to the premisses in reference to the conclusion 9. The absolute conditions are two the first is that the propositions be necessarily true and reciprocal The second is that they be immediate or first 10. Demonstrative propositions must be true for that which is false cannot be known ●nd they must be necessarily so for from ●ropositions not necessarily true no necessary ●nclusion can be inferred unless by chance or ●ccident and they must be necessarily true in the ●ighest degree that is they must be recipro●l For they contein the next cause of the ●●edicate which is such as that it is reciproca●d with its effect 11. A proposition is said to be immediate ●o waies 1. In respect of the subject ●hen there is no more immediate subject be●ween the predicate and the subject as a ●an is rational a man is risible 2. In re●ect of the cause when no
predication in every proposition the which is not in a circle 2. In the Matter for the matter of a circle or middle term is uniform in both the demonstrations seeing it is the next cause of the major extream proving why a thing is but in regress the effect doth first demonstrate that there is a cause then after consideration had about the cause the cause doth demonstrate why there is an effect 3. In the end for in a circle the same thing is both beginning and end seeing it proceeds from a cause distinctly known to a cause distinctly known and returns from this to that but in regress the end is a distinct knowledge of the effect and the first progress is from an effect confusedly known to a cause to be confusedly known but from a cause confusedly known consideration being had we come to the distinct knowledg of the cause and from that once habituated and radicated in the understanding we return to the distinct knowledge of the effect 3. Conversion of a demonstration into a definition is when from the terms of a demonstration the definition of a proper accident is framed by transposition And the definition of a proper accident is twofold 1. Partial and that is either Nominal which consists of a Genus and a subject as an Eclipse in the defect of light in the Moon Causal which is the middle term in the most perfect demonstration shewing why there is an effect as an Eclipse is the interposition of the Earth 2. Total which being made of the nominal and the causal both doth consist of a Genus a subject and the next cause as an Eclipse is the defect of llight in the Moon by reason of the interposition of the earth A nominal definition is the conclusion of the of the demonstration A causal is the beginning A total is an intire or whole demonstration differing in nothing from it but the placing of the terms for the thing defined is the greater extreme the lesser extreme the subject and the cause the middle term CHAP. X. Of a Topical Syllogism in the General HItherto we have spoken of a demonstrative Syllogism whose matter is necessary and the end a perfect knowledge come we now to a dialectical or topical Syllogism whose matter is probable and contingent and the end opinion 2. In a dialectical or topical Syllogism we are to consider of Problemes Propositions and the invention of arguments 3. A Probleme or Question is the thing of which it is probably discoursed and the conclusion of a Syllogism already made But that this Problem may be dialectical two conditions are required 1. That it be profitable either to life and then it is called a moral Probleme as whether pleasure be good or to knowledge and then it is called a Physical or a natural probleme as whether the world be eternal or to some thing that is subservient unto these and then it is called a Logical Probleme as whether division be a Syllogism 2. That it be doubtful in which either the common people do dissent from wise men as whether riches make men happy or the common people dissent among themselves as whether usury be lawful or the wise men dissent among themselves as whether the heart be the most noble part of man 4. The parts of a Probleme are the two terms of subject and predicate As concerning the subject I give no directions because a dialectical Syllogism is not restrained to any certain subject But the Predicates according to Aristotle are four Genus Definition Accident proper and common He adjoineth difference to Genus if it be more comprehensive than the species or to definition if it be reciprocated with the species if the species chanceth to be attributed in any Probleme it is reduced to Genus 5. Dialectical Propositions ought to be certain at least probable and not Paradoxes 6. That is said to be probable which not being absolutely true doth rather seem to be true than false There are five degrees of probability for that is said to be probable which seemeth to be true either to all to most men or unto wise men and that either to all of them or to the most or to the wisest of them 7. That is said to be a Paradox which is true though contrary to the vulgar opinion 8. For the invention of arguments we are to consider common places and rules 9. A place is a sense or commmon note by whose help an argument is found 10. A Rule or Canon is a proposition containing the reason of the consequence in a dialectical Syllogism 11. Arguments are of two sorts artificial and inartificial 12. Artificial arguments are such as from the consideration of the parts of the probleme are not found but by rules of art 13. Inartificial arguments are such as are found without any help of art and these are nothing but testimonies 14. Several men do reckon the order of these heads or places severally Aristotle reduceth all heads to the four predicates mentioned before some for the more plainness and distinction reckon up twenty and five and this number some contract to thirteen others to ten and perhaps they may without any inconvenience be reduced unto seven 1. The Cause and the Effect 2. The subject and the Accident 3. Dissentany and Comparison 4. Conjugates and Notation 5. The whole and its parts 6. Genus and Species 7. Definition and Division In every of these places I will in the proposed order shew you the Canons to be observed and the restrictions of them CHAP. XI Of the Topicks from the Cause and the Effect THere are four kinds of Causes efficient material formal and final there are several sub-divisions of them but these following are the most convenient to our purpose as 1. Into total as Gold is the cause of money the Sun of the day and partial as timber in the cause of a house nature of learning 2. Into a cause actually as a builder is the cause ●f an house and a cause potentially as an ●rchitect may build an house 3. Into a re●ote cause as a feast may be the cause of ●●ckness and the next cause as crudity in ●he stomach is the cause of sickness 4. Into 〈◊〉 cause simply and by it self as the Sun is ●he cause of light and a cause by accident as ●he Sun of blindness The Canons or Rules of this Topick are ●hese 1. The cause being granted the effect cannot be denied and if the cause be taken away the effect is taken away also as if the Sun shine it must be day if the Sun doth not ●hine it is not day the former part of this Canon hath four limitations 1. In a remote cause as he that drinks wine is not alwaies made drunk 2. In a cause that is obstructed in its operation as heavy things do not alwaies descend because they may be hindered by some thing that holds them up 3. In a cause by accident as he that diggeth in