and more probable be not much lesse shall that be which is lesse probable and possible The conclusion of such arguments must alwayes be negatiue Lastly 3. Lesse probable we may proue a thing in question by bringing in another thing that is lesse probable saying thus If a thing lesse probable and harder to be beleeved is notwithstanding or hath beene much more ought we to beleeue that which is more probable and easier to be done So if one at twelue yeares of age can carry a waight of a hundred pound by a stronger reason one may carry the same weight at the age of twentie yeares And if Alexander tooke Tyre much more easily might he haue taken Ierusalem which was weaker then Tyre if he had besieged it This is called arguing from the lesse probable to the greater grounded vpon this Maxime Maxime If that which is lesse probable and lesse possible may be much more shall that be which is more probable and more possible The conclusion of such arguments must alwaies be affirmatiue Wee must warily distinguish between the greatnesse of the thing and the greatnesse of the probabilitie For greatest things are oft lesse probable and more difficult For it were no good argument to say thus If birds can flie how much more bulls And if a threed can goe through the eie of a needle how much more a cable And if Michael Angell could paint very excellently how much more the Emperour Charles the fift The seventeenth Chapter Of Testimony TEstimonies are often vsed to argue and proue a thing Testimonies are of force and doe perswade when they be such as may not be denied by reason of the qualitie authoritie sufficiencie or multitude of persons Testimonies are either divine or humane Divine testimonies are Oracles and all that is called the Word of GOD likewise dreames visions miracles be they true or false if they be delivered as true Also rules to liue well derived from nature Humane testimonies if the question be about matter of right are humane lawes customes the testimonies of Ancestours or such as are skilfull in their owne art the consent of nations But if the question be of fact then are to be produced schedules acquittances confessions eye or eare witnesses Such witnesses Maxime as doe not affirme or denie a thing to be or not to be are of no force For there is a great difference between these two sayings God saith not that such a thing is and God saith that such a thing is not The latter is a good proofe but the former hath no consequence or sequel And likewise this proofe is of no effect Aristotle hath not said so therefore it is not so Or the Word of God saith not that man is a reasonable creature and therefore man is not a reasonable creature Notwithstanding if it be a thing which cannot be knowne but by the testimonie of one alone then this kinde of arguing is good and firme Such a one said not â—o and therefore you cannot maintaine that it is so For example if we had no knowledge of China but by the report of one man onely whosoever would affirme any thing without the warrant of such a one without question would be prooved a lyar or iâ— he spake the truth it were but by chance and not knowing himselfe whether he spake true or no. So likewise seeing that nothing that is necessary to salvation can be knowne without warrant from the Word of God whosoever in things necessarie to salvation affirmeth any thing not contained in the said word of GOD ought not to be beleeved affirmes that which he knowes not The eighteenth Chapter Of the vse or Practice of the precedent Doctrine THis Doctrine contained in the sixteene precedent Chapters is called the doctrine of Places because it shewes the places whence matter is drawne for argument and furniture for proofes For example if wee vndertake to proue that Death is not to be feared of a vertuous man wee must runne over these sixteene places and take notice of such as will best furnish vs with matter To make this plaine we will runne over the said places and apply them to this example The Genus of Death Death is the end of mans life Now the end is to be desired when it is not onely the end but also the scope that wee must ayme at such is death vnto which a wise man ought to prepare himselfe every day as being the end of his hope The difference This death comes by the separation of the soule from the bodie now wee must not feare the separation of such things as being ioyned doe hurt one another the soule consumeth the bodie with cares like vnto a knife that cuts its sheath the bodie is to the soule as a burden or a prison God separateth them to reioyne them againe in a better estate and condition The Species There be two kindes of death the one naturall caused through age the other violent which happens by sicknesse or when a man is killed Philosophers say that death which comes through age is without paine because it is without combate or resistance and who would liue when all his strength is spent violent death is not also to be feared of a vertuous man for what matter is it whether I dye of an ague or by the sword Whether by the distemper of humors or by the distemper or commotion of people Whether I yeeld vp my soule by the mouth or by a wound so it may goe to God The properties and accidents of Death Death makes all alike both great and small It dismasketh and discovereth thoughts then dissimulation hath no more place The words of the dying are serious and of great weight their prayers are fervent their confession humble their admonitions to their children are received with attention the spirit of God comforteth them within the Angels guard and assist them without and Iesus Christ reacheth them out the crowne Of things conjoyned with Death If we must not bewaile the dead why should we then feare death The causes of Death The efficient cause of death is the will of God which wee were better to yeeld vnto willingly then by compulsion why should we resist Gods will seeing it is iust and vnevitable Againe the law of nature vnder the which we are borne is the cause of death plead not therefore against your owne hand writing Wouldst thou haue the lawes of the world changed for thee The finall cause of death in regard of the world is that we may giue place one to another thy father hath given place to thee giue thou place to thy children The finall cause of death in regard of every vertuous man is to put an end to all his miseries and to bring him home to God For all these causes of death a vertuous man ought not to feare it Causes wherefore a thing ought not to be feaâ—ed A thing is not to be feared first if it is vnevitable secondly
things Alike or vnlike Page 71. Chapter 14. Of things Opposit Page 75. Chapter 15. Comparison of things Page 82. Chapter 16. Comparison of the Probabilitie or Likelihood Page 85. Chapter 17. Of testimony Page 88. Chapter 18. Of the Vse or Practice of the Precedent Doctrine Page 91. The third Booke Of Enuntiations Chapter â— VVHat an Enuntiation is and the parts thereof Page 105. Chapter â— Of the kinds of Enuntiation Page 109. Chapter â— Of the Opposition of Enuntiations Page 113. Chapter 4. Of the Conversion of Enuntiations Page 117. The fourth Booke Of a Syllogisme Chapter 1. WHat a Syllogisme is Also what a Conclusion is and a Question or Probleme and of the parts thereof Page 121. Chapter 2. How to make a Syllogisme and of the parts of it Page 123. Chapter 3. The naturall reason vpon which a Syllogisme is grounded Page 126. Chapter 4. Of the Figures of a Syllogisme Page 127. Chapter 5. Generall Rules common to all Figures Page 128. Chapter 6. Particular Rules to each Figure Page 134. Chapter 7. Certaine Artificiall words which serue to shew how many wayes wee may argue in each Figure and the meanes to convert the second and third figure into the first Page 142. Chapter 8. Of an Enthymeme Page 146. Chapter 9. Of Induction and Example Page 148. Chapter 10. Of the Enumeration of parts Page 150. Chapter 11. Of a Dilemma Page 152. Chapter 12. Of a Sorites or heaping Syllogisme Page 154. Chapter 13. Of Conditionall or Hypotheticall Syllogismes Page 155. Chapter 14. Of Disjunctiue Syllogismes Page 157. The fift Booke Of the Master-peece of Logick called DEMONSTRATION Chapter 1. VVHat Science is Page 161. Chapter 2. What a Demonstration or a Demonstratiue Syllogisme is Pages 163. Chapters 3. What questions are demonstrable Pages 164. Chapter 4. What the propositions of a demonstratiue Syllogisme ought to be Page 166. Chapters 5. A speciall note how to know a perfect demonstration Pages 169. Chapters 6. Of an Imperfect demonstration Pages 170. The sixt Booke Of Sophismes or Fallacies Chapters 1. OF Fallacies in words Pages 175. Chapters 2. Of fallacies in the matter Pages 181. Chapters 3. The fallacie by Accident Pages 182. Chapters 4. The fallacie which taketh a thing as simply true which is not so but onely in some respect Pages 183. Chapters 5. The fallacie supposing that which is questioned Pages 184. Chapters 6. The fallacie of Inconsequence Pages 184. Chapters 7. The fallacie whereby a thing is taken for a cause which is not Pages 186. Chapters 8. The fallacie which mingleth many Interrogations as if they were but one Pages 187. Chapters 9. The fallacie which is committed through the Ignorance of that which contradicteth the question Pages 188. Chapters 10. Of the faults in Syllogismes Pages 190. ERRATA PAge 42. line 19. for by blunt hornes reade by the blunt hornes p. 49. l. 23. for Now r. None p. 50. l. 13. for ana xe reade an axe page 55. betweene line 10. and 11. put Accidents into other Accidents p. 80. l. 7. for certaine r. contrary THE ELEMENTS OF LOGICK The first Booke which treateth OF SIMPLE NOTIONS The first Chapter What Logick is How many sorts of Notions there be in the minde of man LOGICK is an Art which giueth rules to argue well and to discerne truth from falshood To be able to form an argument and to frame a good reason we must know that all the Notions or Conceptions in mans vnderstanding are either Simple or Compound Simple Notions are such as are expressed by one word onely As horse man whitenes to see to runne c. Compound Notions are such as are expressed by an Enuntiation or Proposition which affirmeth or denieth something As Man is reasonable God is no lyar Of many Propositions knit together an Argument or Syllogisme is made by those meanes and rules which shall be set downe hereafter The second Chapter How many sorts of simple Notions there are Of Things singular and vniversall Also of Substance and Accident THere are as many simple Notions as there be things in the world Of Things some be singular and some vniversall Singular things are those which are one in Number As Frederick Peter this horse this tree Vniversall things comprehend and containe the Singulars For an vniversall is a gathering together of many Singulars vnder one nature common to all As horse man tree vnder which words considered in generall wee comprehend all horses men trees Singulars are knowne by sense but vniversals are comprehended by the vnderstanding Therfore bruit beasts know onely Singular things Singulars in Philosophie are called Individuals because they cannot be divided into two parts keeping the same name As Alexander cannot be divided into two Alexanders nor one horse into two horses A whole compounded of parts alike As water blood wood are not called Individuals because they may be divided into parts which may keepe the name of the whole For every drop of water is water and of a great peece of wood every parcell is wood But if you will turne these things into Individuals you must add the name of the measure For one pint of water cannot be divided into two pintes nor one acre of ground into two acres All things whether Singular or Vniversall are either Substances or Accidents A Substance is that which subsisteth of it selfe as man water earth c. An Accident is that which cannot subsist by it selfe but must haue a subject or substance to vphold it and vnto which it must adhere as whitenes swiftnes wisedome heat For whitenes can haue no being if it subsisteth not in some subject as in snow or in the skinne so heat is an accident to fire swiftnes is an accident to an horse wisedome is an accident to the vnderstanding Accidents are sometimes expressed by a Substantiue as iustice beautie and sometimes by an Adjectiue as iust faire In the first manner accidents are called Abstracts or Separated In the second they are called Concretes or Conjoyned For he that names iustice or beautie considers justice or beautie without any certaine Subject But he that names iust or â—â—ire considers justice and beautie as â—dhering to a certain Subject that is cloathed therewith Common custome oft confounds â—hese things saying the true the â—lack the sweet in stead of saying the â—ruth the blacknes the sweetnesse Now because there are divers and â—undry kindes of accidents the Phiâ—osophers haue ranked them into â—ine Orders or Classes of things vnâ—o which Substance being added â—here are ten Classes which the Phiâ—osophers call Categories or Prediâ—aments So that there is nothing in â—he world which is done either by Nature or by Art by Councell or Chance which may not be referred â—o and contained in some one of â—hese Categories The third Chapter The Names of the ten Categories The ten Categories are these 1. Substance as man horse 2. Quantitie as length breadth 3. Qualitie as swiftnesse whitenesse roundnesse 4. Relation or Respect as to be a Father or
shall not need to repeat them The Opposits Here a drunkard must be set forth in all his colours his speech his gesture his countenance his troubled mind the gout accompanying it the red and bleer'd eyes the memory overthrowne the vnderstanding becoÌ„meth more brutish the leaness proceeding from excesse is worse then that which commeth of want Add vnto these the shame and reproach when as the diseases of old age are imputed to the excesse of youth by such as will be readie to say 't is well bestowed he hath not left his vices but his vices haue left him Againe the good of the familie is wasted time is mis-spent the body and mind corrupted quarrels are pickt in drinking and lascivious desires are stirred vp a man becomes a babler disclosing his most hidden secrets It is a bottomles gulfe for a little will content nature but a greedie desire hath no end Intemperance either kindles or discovers all manner of vices The causes of drunkennesse and gluttony Bad company doth cause excesse so doth the opinion of a false pleasure For what pleasure is there to drinke without thirst and to stirre vp an artificial hunger when the belly is full Also vaine glory causeth excesse when men will imagine it to be a thing praise-worthy to be able to hold more drinke then another and yet such a man shall never hold so much drinke as a hogs-head and though he haue a more capable bodie he shall not therefore be accounted a man of greater capacitie Comparison in the Probabilitie Seeing the very beasts do not overdrinke themselues why should a man by his drunkennesse make himselfe worse then a beast Shall the instinct in a beast be of greater force then reason in a man Similitudes A man cannot studie neare a Kitchin a drunkard is not fit for a Sentinell God hath not made our bodies to be like Spunges which are filled and then squeesed out Excesse in drinke kindles concupiscence as Oyle powred on a fire Testimonies Adde to those divine and humane testimonies That God hath given man very long and revolved intestines to the end that the meat being long in the passage he should not need to feed againe so soone That God hath placed the braine farre from the belly which is the Kitchin of the bodie That the Lacedemonians would sometimes make one of their slaues drunke and point him to their children to mâ—ke this vice odious vnto them All these things afford matter of argument Of all these proofes some are more forcible then others The force and soliditie of the proofes is knowne by the helpe of the Maximes which we haue added to every place ¶ The third Booke Of ENVNTIATION The first Chapter What an Enuntiation is and the parts thereof THE places or helpes of invention contained in the sixteene precedent Chapters afford vnto vs abundan◠〈◊〉 â—â—ter for proofes and arguments Iâ— nâ—w remaineth that we giue a forme vnto these proofes or arguments and shew how to frame an argument so as it may be of force to proue An argument or reasoning is by the Philosophers called a Syllogisme which is a Grecke word signifying the making vp of an account or the collecting of a summe For that which is the making vp of an account or the totall summe of AdditioÌ„ or Multiplication in Arithmetick the same is the conclusion in a Syllogisme namely that which resulteth and followeth from the proofe Every Syllogisme is composed of two Propositions or Enuntiations and of a Conclusion Enuntiation is a speech wherein something is affirmed or denied Every Enuntiation consists of two words at the least which the Logicians call Termes as who would say the two ends or the two peeces For example The fire burneth God is good These Enuntiations are compounded of two parts the one is called the Subject the other the Attribute Fire is the Subject and burneth is the Attribute For burning is attributed to fire God is the Subject and this word good is the Attribute This Verb Is is not reckoned as a part of the Enuntiation but is onely the linke and bond of these two parts Wheresoever there is an affirmation or negation there is an Enuntiation though it seemeth to be but one word As when we say in Latin Curro we vnderstand ego curro I runne And in English It raineth is an vsuall and common word which is as much as this Enuntiation the raine falleth So when we say It freezeth It snoweth c. And when wee aske any body Sleepe you He that answereth No maketh a kinde of secret Enuntiation for it is as much as if he should say I sleepe not When we argue the Enuntiations must be full and perfect so as there may be no need of any supplying All truth and falshood is expressed by the Indicatiue mood and therefore every Enuntiation must be couched in the Indicatiue because wee affirme or deny a thing onely by that mood And therefore Imperatiues Optatiues and Subiunctiues enter not into an Eâ—â—untiation nor doe any â—ervice to the Art of Logick whoâ—e end and scope is to search out and discerne the truth Now tâ—uth is onely expressed â—y the Inâ—icatiue The other moods are left to Rhetorick and serue onely for ornament Sometimes one of theâ—â— termes or parts of the Enuntiation is expressed by many words as All the lines drawne from the center to the circumference of the circle are equall God is free from all infirmitie The Verb Substantiue is thâ—â—â—â—â—ch causeth the Subject to be â—â—â—â—â—ed from the Aâ—tribute for 〈…〉 between both An Enuntiation and a Proposition are the same thing yet out of a Syllâ—gisme weâ— call it Enuntiation but in a Syllogisme wee call it Proposition The second Chapter Of the kinds of Enuntiation ENuntiations are either Simple or Compounded The Simple EnuntiatioÌ„ which also is called Categoricall when a thing is affirmed or denied simply without condition and without adding a Whether or an If as Man is reasonable Heaven is round Water is colde God is no lyar Of these Enuntiations some are Vniversall and some particular Vniversall Enuntiations are such as haue these words All or None joyned with them As All men are sinners No man is perfect Particular Enuntiations are such as doe not affirme or denie generally of all but onely of some in particular As Some man is blacke Some Kings haue not beene wise Every horse is not white Vnder particular Enuntiations the Singulars are also comprehended As Peter is foolish This man is a Philosopher Enuntiations which haue no note whereby they may be discerned to be vniversals or particulars are called Indefinites and in strict dealing must be taken for particulars Notwithstanding when the matter is Necessarie they are of as much force as vniversals As when I say Man is reasonable it is as much as if I should say All men are reasonable But if the matter be contingent and and mutable as Man is white they are but as particulars and is no more