shews us that not the private Felicity of any single Man is the principal end of God the Legislator or ought to be so of any one who will truly obey his Will and by a Parity of reason it also appears that those humane Actions which from their own natural force and Efficacy are apt to promote the common Good are certainly better than those which do only serve the private Good of any one Man and that by the same proportion as a common Good is greater than a private So likewise those Actions which take the nearest way to attain this effect as an End are called Right because of their natural Similitude with a right or straight line which is always the shortest between the two Terms But the same Actions when compared with a Natural or positive Law as a rule of Life or Manners and are found conformable to it are called morally good and also right that is agreeable to the Rule but the Rule it self is called right or straight as it shews the nearest way to the End But I shall referr you for the clearer Explication of these things to what we have farther said concerning them in the Discourse its self especially in the Second part wherein we prove against Mr. H's Principle that there is a true Natural and Moral Good antecedent to Civil Laws But however it may not be amiss to give you in short the method which we take to prove that this Law of endeavouring the common Good is really and indeed and not Metaphorically a Law 1. This general Supposition being premised That all particular Persons who can either promote or oppose this common Good are parts of that whole Body of mankind which is either preserved or prejudiced by their endeavours We shall not now descend to the particular Proofs as they are drawn from the Causes of such Actions of which we have partly treated in the Chapter of humane Nature and partly from their natural Effects and Consequences of which we have largely discoursed in the Chapter of the Obligation of the Law of Nature as also in the Second part in our Observation on Mr. H's Principles all which may nevertheless be reduced to these plain Propositions 1. As I have observed it is manifest that our Felicity or highest Reward is essentially connected by God the Legislator with the most full and constant exercise of our natural Powers employed about the noblest Objects and greatest Effects they can be capable of as proportioned to them from whence it may be gathered that all men endued with these Faculties are naturally obliged under the penalty of losing or missing of this their Happiness to exercise those Powers about the worthiest Objects viz. God and Mankind Nor can it be long doubted whether our Faculties may be more happily exercised in maintaining Friendship or Enmity with them for I think it is certain there can be no Neutral State in which God and Men can neither be beloved nor hated or in which we can stand so far Neuters as neither to do things gratefull nor ungratefull to them But if it be granted that there is a manifest Necessity if we will be truly happy of preserving Amity both with God and Men here is thereby presently declared the Sanction of this general Law of Nature which we are now enquiring into for this alone establishes all Natural Religion and also all those things which are necessary to the Happiness and preservation of Mankind which are besides Piety towards God 1. A peaceable Commerce and Agreement of divers Nations which are treated of by the Law of Nations which is but a Branch or subordinate Member of this great Law of Nature 2. The Constitution and Conservation of a Civil Society or Common-wealth which is the Scope of all Civil Laws And 3. The Continuance of Domestick Relations and private Friendships concerning which the general Rules of Ethicks as also the more particular ones of Oeconomies do prescribe And therefore we have put together many things in the Chapter of humane Nature by which all particular Persons of sound Minds are some way rendred capable of so large a Society and are either more nearly or remotely disposed to it And we do here intreat the Reader that he will not consider those things each of them singly or apart but all together since from all of them conjoyned he may raise a sufficient Argument to prove the Existence and evince the Sanction of this most general Law of Nature and that Men will necessarily fail of their Happiness which chiefly consists in the Adequate or proper Exercise of their rational Faculties unless they will exercise them in cultivating this Amity or Love both with God and Men to which Ends they are before all other Animals particularly adapted But from the Effects of such Actions conducing to the Common good of Rational Beings we have also further shewn in the Chapter of the Obligation of the Laws of Nature that this Sanction by sufficient Rewards and Punishments is most commonly connected with such Actions And it is manifest that in the first place God as the best and wisest of Rational Beings is to be loved and honoured by such Actions or Endeavours as that the Goods and Fortunes of all innocent Persons of what Nation soever are thereby secured as far as lies in our Power and all things profitable for particular Persons procured according to the Proportion they bear to the good of the whole Body of Mankind so that this Law will not permit any thing to be done which the Care of the whole doth not allow Nor can any thing be supposed more worthy a rational Creature and from whence greater Effects can proceed than a Will always propeuse towards the good of this whole Body governed by the Conduct of a Right Vnderstanding Therefore since it can certainly be foreknown that such Effects will follow from this Endeavour no Man can be ignorant that all the Ioys and present Comforts of true Piety are therein contained together with the hopes of a blessed Immortality besides those many Conveniencies of Peace and commerce with those of other Nations and all those Emoluments both of Civil and Domestick Government and private Friendships which are connected with this Endeavour as the common Rewards thereof and which cannot by any Means within our Power be otherwise obtained So that he who neglects the Care of the Common good doth also reject the true Causes of his own Felicity and embraces those of his Misery as a Punishment due to his Folly In short since it is manifest from the Nature of things that the highest Happiness which we can procure for our selves proceeds from our Care both of Piety to God and Love and Peace with Men. And that the Endeavour of these can only be found in his Soul who truly studieth the common Good of all Rational Beings it is also evident that the greatest Rewards that any one can acquire are necessarily connected with this Endeavour
their natures § 11. All Creatures express a delight in the society of others of the same kind some cases or intervals wherein Nature seems to act otherwise no contradiction to this general Rule § 12. All Animals impelled by the natural Constitution of their parts to a Love of those of a different Sex and to a natural Affection to their Offspring § 13. All Animals take delight in the sweeter Passions of Love Ioy Desire c. as helpfull to their natural Constitution whereas the contrary Passions when inordinate are highly destructive to it § 14. Mr. H. cannot deny these natural Propensions and therefore is forced to suppose somewhat in Man's nature that renders him more unsociable than Brutes § 15. Other peculiar Observations relating to Man whereby he is made more capable of promoting the common good as first from the greater quantity of Brains in Men than in Brutes § 16. 2. From the natural Constitution of their Bloud and Spermatick Vessels from whence arises a Necessity of Marriage and of a more constant and lasting Love to their Offspring § 17. 3. From the wonderfull structure of Men's hands it is proved that this Instrument was given us for some more noble use than bare self-preservation § 18. Lastly From the upright posture of Men's bodies and way of motion § 19. The next Set of Observations tending to prove Men more fitted for the promoting of this common good is taken from the natural and peculiar faculties of Men's Souls above those of Brutes And 1. from that of deducing effects from their Causes and vice versa especially in that of distinguishing of real or natural from apparent Goods § 20. What is understood by us by a natural or moral Good or Evil. Certain Axioms for the plainer understanding their Nature and Degrees § 21. How we arrive to an Idea of a species or kind of Creatures and also to a notion of the general or common good of Mankind § 22. Speech and the Invention of Letters peculiar faculties of Man's nature § 23. And the great Benefits arising from thence in order to the common good § 24. Men do infinitely exceed Beasts in their discursive Faculties as also in the knowledge and use of Numbers § 25. As also in the Power of Vnderstanding the different Quantities and Proportions between Bodies which we call Geometry § 26. The two great remaining Prerogatives of humane Souls Freedom of Will as to moral Actions and the Knowledge of a God § 27 28. What knowledge we can have of his Attributes which can never be truly understood but with respect to their great End the Prosecution of the common good of the Vniverse § 29. The Contents of the Third Chapter A Brief recapitulation of the former Chapters and a summing up all those Observations into a general Proposition of God's Willing and Commanding the Common Good of rational Beings as the main End of all our Actions § 1. A brief Explanation of the Terms of our Description of the Law of Nature and that words are not always essential to Laws § 2. That all moral Truths or Duties as declared by God are contained in this one Proposition of Endeavouring the common good certain Principles laid down for the proving it § 3 4 5 6. That this being once discovered to us we lie under a sufficient Obligation to observe this Proposition as a natural Law with the Explanation of the Term Obligation and who hath Authority to oblige us § 7 8 9. Yet that this Obligation may well consist with the freedom of our wills the difference between a mere animal and a rational or natural Good the neglect of which distinction is the Cause of Epicurus and Mr. H's Errors § 10. The last part of the Obligation to this Law viz. its Sanction by Rewards and Punishments certain Axioms necessary to be known in order to the right understanding the true nature of a moral Good or Evil and of Man's true happiness and perfection with its difference from that of other Beings § 11. That though all moral Obligation does not consist in Rewards or Punishments Yet that by reason of the weakness of humane Nature it is insignificant without them with a Scale of Nature shewing the difference between Vegetables and inanimate Bodies and between Men and Brutes § 12. The strictest Sanction and consequently Obligation to all Laws consists in Rewards and Punishments duly distributed God's right of Dominion not to be resolved into his irresistible Power § 13. The internal Rewards ordained by God in Nature are first the inward satisfaction of the Soul and also the pleasure all men take in the exercise of the sweeter passions of Love c. § 14 15. The external Rewards are all the like returns of this Benevolence from others with the praise or commendation of all good men together with the peace and protection of the civil Government § 16 17. Lastly from God Soundness of mind and body with all those outward blessings he usually bestows on the peaceable and vertuous with a Solution to the difficulty why God often afflicts Good men § 18. The internal Punishments ordained by God for the transgression of this Law are the absence or privation of the former good things which is an Evil and a Punishment § 19. Errour and being governed by the Passions a real Evil and an internal Punishment § 20. 3. That such evil Actions cannot but be often displeasing to the Person that doth them § 21. 4. That Vices and Crimes seldom come alone but let in a train of others of the same kind or worse along with them § 22. 5. That such an Offender cannot get out of this state when he will at least not without the trouble of Repentance § 23. 6. The fear of Punishment both from God and Man § 24. The external Punishments are 1. The Evils thot happen to the body from violent and unsociable Passions § 25. The 2d Those returns of hatred or contempt which all such men must expect from others § 26. The 3d. Returns of revenge from those they have injured § 27. Lastly Those Punishments which are often inflicted by the civil Powers all which natural Punishments Mr. H. himself acknowledges to be ordained by God § 28. That where these Punishments fail in this Life they will be supplied by others infinitely more grievous and durable in that to come § 29. A brief recapitulation of this Chapter that this Proposition of our Endeavouring the common good c. is truly a Law as containing all the Conditions requisite thereunto § 30. The Contents of the Fourth Chapter A Brief repetition of what hath been said in the first Chapter That no man can have a right to preserve his own Life but as it conduces to the common good c. That in all Societies the good of the lesser part must give place and be subordinate to that of the greater § 1. That a due consideration of this Law will lead us to a
knowledge of the reason and grounds of all the particular Laws of nature § 2. And also that all moral Vertues are contained under this one Law of endeavouring the common good That Prudence is nothing but the knowledge of our duty in order to the graet End the Common Good as Constancy in the prosecution of it is therefore true fortitude § 3. That Temperance or Moderation in all corporeal Pleasures is no otherwise a Vertue than as it conduces to the happiness and preservation of Mankind That under Love and Benevolence are contained the Vertues of Innocence Meekness c. § 4 5. Equity a Vertue as it promotes the common good of mankind § 6. The same proved likewise of Iustice since nothing can be called ours either by natural or civil Laws but as it conduces to this great End and a natural and civil Property necessary thereunto the one in a natural state the other in a civil society § 7. From Property arises the necessity of Contracts Promises Gifts c. all which are still to be governed by this great Law § 8. From this natural Property arises the Vertue of Moderation setting bounds to inordinate self-love in order to the common good Frugality no otherwise a Vertue than as it renders us not burthensome not injurious to others § 9. The natural Love of Parents to their Children to be exercised and limitted with respect to the common good § 10. All the rest of the moral Vertues such as Temperance Frugality c. more particularly explained to proceed from the same original and not to be understood without it § 11. The same more particularly applyed and made out in every particular Vertue which constitutes Iustice § 12. All the homolitical Vertues i. e. such as respect conversation or the due use of speech explained after the same manner with a like respect to the common good § 13 14 15. Self-love and Self-preservation only lawfull in order to this End § 16. Some farther Explanations of the nature of Temperance and wherein it consists § 17. That part of it called Chastity a Vertue only as it tends to the good and propagation of mankind § 18. Another part of it viz. Modesty in seeking of riches honour c. Vertues only as they limit our self-love from pretending to more than we have need of or deserve in order to the common good § 19. That a regard to this great Rule runs through all the moral Vertues which are all of them contained under the most diffusive Benevolence towards rational Beings § 20. Right Reason explained to be only a due consideration of this End in all moral actions towards God or Men and that the knowledge of these moral rules is as certain as that of the knowledge of any other natural causes and effects concerning the preservation of Animals § 21. And that from their true understanding proceeds all the certainty we can have of natural Laws notwithstanding there may be a sufficient latitude left us for indifferent actions § 22. The Common Good as it is a collection of all other goods so it is a true standard or measure of them as shewing what goods are to be sought for or desired before others § 23. It is only to be learnt from hence what degrees of passions or affections are lawfull that is consistent with the Common Good and consequently thereby to judge of the several degrees and proportions of goodness and happiness § 24. Piety towards God a Vertue as it conduces to the common good and happiness of rational Beings § 25. Nothing a Good but as it contributes to this great End § 26. The reason of this disquisition into the true grounds of Good and Evil as being that which makes all moral Philosophy a practical Science and not merely speculative like that of the Stoicks § 27. A brief Conclusion out of Dr. Parker's Demonstration of the Laws of Nature § 28. The Contents of the Fifth Chapter THE Objections of two sorts of Men Platonists and Epicureans against this Notion of the Common Good the Objections of the former to be first considered their first Objection That it is more suitable to God's goodness to imprint certain Innate Idea's of good and evil on our minds § 1. Answer thereunto out of Mr. Lock 's Essay c. § 2. A farther Answer from St. Paul That the visible things of the Creation are a sufficient proof of the Being of a God and of the Laws of Nature § 3. The laboriousness of our Method no material Objection § 4. An explicit Idea of this Common Good not always necessary to its observation § 5. Another Objection against our Method That it makes every man's obligation to endeavour this Common Good to arise from its being chiefly good to himself Answer That this if it be considered will prove a mistake though I grant our Obligation to it as a Law cannot extend farther than as it concerns our happiness or misery § 6 7. A Reply to the Objections of the Epicureans The first Objection That it seems not suitable to God's goodness c. to permit this great End of the Common Good to depend upon the unreasonable Passions and Lusts of mankind Answ. That God intended Man for a voluntary Creature to be moved by moral Evil as well as Good and that God notwithstanding all this restrains his Actions by his infinite Power and Providence § 8 9. Second Objection If this Law of Nature is so easie to be known how comes it to pass that so many Nations seem wholly ignorant of it many living without any knowledge of a God or of a moral Good or Evil § 10. Answer This Objection is of no more weight against the Certainty of this Law than it is against that of Arithmetick and Geometry but that if they are guilty of this ignorance it proceeds either from the Loss of the Tradition of the Creation or else from want of time or opportunities to consider these things § 11. Men's not making a due use of their faculties in discovering these Truths no objection against their certainty § 12. The last Objection That this Notion of the Common Good is a mere Platonick Idea without any reality in Nature § 13. This Objection in vain if it be considered That this Notion of the Common Good is made up of particulars and that from thence arises an Idea of a common or general Good which though a complex one is as true and real as any other and as agreeable to the Nature of things farther proved from Lock 's Essay and that Mr. H. himself cannot deny the Truth of this Notion § 14. Mr. H's great Rule of doing as you would be done by signifies nothing without respect to the Common Good of Mankind § 15. So neither that of preserving a Man's self or any other innocent person unless as it conduces to the Common Good of Mankind § 16. Not only the whole Law of Nature but the revealed Law of Moses and
the Gospel of Jesus Christ reducible to this one Proposition of Endeavouring the Common Good and that this was the great design of Christ's coming into the World § 17 18. A Conclusion of the whole § 19. TO THE BOOKSELLER THE Learned Authour of this Treatise sent it to me then being in a Private Station above a year ago but then concealed his Name from me either through his great Modesty or because in his Prudence he thought that if I knew him I might be biassed in my judgment by the Honour which I am obliged to have to his Family and especially to his Grandfather by his Mother's side the most Learned Primate of Ireland Wherefore I read the Book without any respect to the unknown Writer and considered only the Merits of the Performance Thus I found that he had not only well translated and epitomized in some places what I had written in Latin but had fully digested the chief things of my Design in a well-chosen Method of his own with great Perspicuity and had added some Illustrations of his own or from other Learned Authours with a Philosophical Liberty which I must needs allow For this Reason I judged that the then unknown Authour had given too low a Title to his Book and that I was to esteem him a good Hyperaspistes or able Second in this Combat for Truth and Justice rather than a Translater or Epitomizer of what I had written This obliged me to enquire diligently after the Authour's Name and Quality and then I soon obtained the Favour and Honour of a more intimate Conversation with him Hereby I soon found that I might safely leave the Maintenance of that good Cause in which I was engaged to his great Abilities and Diligence And I hope that since this Learned Gentleman hath conquer'd the Difficulties of the Search into the Rise of the Laws of Nature now many of our younger Gentry will be encouraged to follow him in the way which this his Treatise makes plain before them For from thence they may receive assistance not only to discern the Reasonableness of all Vertue and Morality which is their Duty and Ornament as they are Men but also they may here see the true Foundations of Civil Government and Property which they are most obliged to understand because as Gentlemen they are born to the greatest Interest in them both I need add no more to give you Assurance that I freely consent to your Printing of this Book and am Your affectionate Friend Ric. Peterborough OF THE Law of NATURE And its OBLIGATION CHAP. I. Of the first Means of discovering the Law of Nature viz. the Nature of Things § 1. HAving in the Introduction to this Discourse shewn you those several Methods by which divers Authors have endeavoured to prove a Law of Nature and having also given my Reasons tho' in short why I cannot acquiesce in any of them as laying too weak Foundations whereon to raise so great and weighty a Building and having likewise given you the only true Grounds by which it can as I suppose be made out viz. from the Existence of a GOD declaring his Will to us from the Frame of the World or by the Nature of all Things without us as also from our own Natures or that of Mankind in general we by the Power of our natural Faculties or Reasons drawing true Conclusions from all these This being premised I shall now proceed particularly to declare in the first place what I understand by the Frame of the World or Nature of Things in order to the proving the Existence and Obligation of the Law of Nature and that it is really and truly a Law obliging all Persons of Years of Discretion and sound Minds to its Observation Which being performed I shall then proceed to our own Nature as included in that of all Mankind § 2. But though the ancient as well as modern Scepticks and Epicureans have of old and do still at this day deny the Existence of any Law of Nature properly so called yet I suppose that we are both sufficiently agreed what we understand by this Term since we both thereby mean certain Principles of immutable Truth and Certainty which direct our voluntary Actions concerning the election of good and the avoiding of evil Things and so lay an Obligation as to our external Actions even in the state of Nature and out of a Civil Society or Common-weal That such eternal Truths are necessarily and unavoidably presented to and perceived by Men's Minds and retained in their Memories for the due ordering or governing of their Actions is what is here by us affirmed and by them as confidently denied And I farther conceive That the Actions so directed and chosen are first known to be naturally good as productive of the greatest publick Benefits and afterwards are called morally Good because they agree with those Dictates of Reason which are here proved to be the Laws or Rules of our Manners or voluntary Actions So also the Evil to be avoided is first the greatest natural Evil which afterwards for the like Reason is called Moral § 3. Therefore that the Existence of such Propositions may more plainly appear and be demonstrated to the Understandings of all indifferent Readers it is necessary that we first carefully consider the Nature of divers Things without us as also that of Mankind and what we mean by Good and Evil whether Natural or Moral Lastly we shall shew what those general Propositions are which we affirm carry with them the Force or Obligation of Natural Laws as declaring their Exercise or Performance necessary to the compassing of an End that ought to be endeavoured or sought after in order to our true and greatest Happiness § 4. Nor let it seem strange that I suppose the Nature of divers Things about which we are daily conversant ought first to be looked into and considered For I will here suppose the Soul or Mind of Man to be at first rasa Tabula like fair Paper that hath no connate Character or Idea's imprinted upon it as that noble Theorist Mr. Lock hath I suppose fully proved and that it is not sensible of any thing at its coming into the World but it s own Existence and Action but receives all its Idea's afterwards from such Objects as it hath received in by the Senses So that our Understandings being naturally destitute of all Notions or Idea's we cannot comprehend how they can operate unless they be first excited by outward Objects And indeed how can we understand what may be helpful and agreeable or else hurtful and destructive to Men's Minds and Bodies unless we first consider as far as we are able all the Causes as well near as remote which have made constitute and still preserve Mankind or else may tend to its destruction either for the time present or to come Nor indeed can it be understood what is the fittest and best Thing or Action any Person can perform in a
and obvious Observations from the Nature of those things without us which we daily stand in need and make use of as may serve to prove after what manner we ought to make use of them and whence that Right arises we have to them I come now to make the like Observations from the Nature of Mankind in order to the proving that we are designed by God for the Good and Preservation of others besides our selves and that in the doing of this we procure as far as lies in our Power the Good and Happiness of all Rational Beings in which our own is likewise included To perform this task I shall first take notice of those Qualities or Properties that belong to man 1 as a meer Natural Body 2 such as belong to him as an Animal 3 such as are peculiar to him as a Rational Creature endued with a higher and nobler Principle than Brutes viz. an Immortal Soul § 2. To begin with the first of these it is evident that as a Natural Body he is endued with these Properties common to all other Natural Bodies First that all his motions in which his Life Strength and Health consist do all proceed from God the first and Original or Cause of them and are necessarily complicated with and depend upon the motions of innumerable other Bodies among which the Corporeal motions of others which do often limit and restrain our own are first and chiefly to be considered 2 That from them as from other Bodies motion may be propagated Indefinitely and which does not perish but concur with other motions to perpetuate the Succession of things that is contribute to the conservation of the Universe and as the former teaches us that a particular end viz. our own Preservation depends upon our Common or joynt Forces or Natural Powers so this latter instructs us that such Powers and motions of particular Persons are often most Beneficial and conducing to the Common Good of all men The first of these Conclusions forbids us to hope for or endeavour our own private Good or Happiness as separate and distinct from that of all others and so excites us to seek the Common Good of Rationals as the Original of our own particular Happiness The other Conclusion shews that this endeavour of the Common Good can never prove in vain or to no purpose since it concurrs with the Will of God and conduces to the Preservation of the Universe and of all Humane Creatures therein contain'd and farther that in each complicated motion as well in that towards which divers Causes concurr for the Preservation of any Body for a certain time as also in that whereby each particular Body concurrs to the Conservation of the whole System There is a certain order still observed whereby some motions are necessarily determined by others in a continual Series or Succession all which are yet governed or over-ruled by the motion of the whole System of Natural Bodies And although this sort of Contemplation may seem remote from common use yet is it not to be contemned as altogether unprofitable in Humane Affairs for it makes us more distinctly perceive from some certain general Principles how necessary a constant and certain order is amongst those Causes that Act from Corporeal forces so that many of them may each in their order Successively concurr to an effect foreseen or designed by us and farther shews us a rule how we may certainly judge what Cause does more or less contribute to the Effect sought for or desired so that from the Natural Power of these Causes their Order Dignity or Power in respect to each Effect are to be determined and judged of and we are taught from the Nature of things as well what Causes are to be most esteemed for those good Effects they have or may produce as also which are most diligently to be sought for the obtaining those ends which we desire and by which means it may be also known that those Causes which Philosophers call Universal viz. God the first Cause and the motion of the Celestial Bodies as proceeding from Him are the Original Causes of the Common Good or Happiness of Mankind a part of which we either always do actually or can hope to enjoy § 3. But omitting those Motions which are not in our Power to influence or alter it is certain that among the things which are in either our Power to do or forbear those voluntary Humane motions proceeding from an Universal Benevolence of all Men towards all others are the principal Causes of their Common Happiness and in which every one's private Good is included Since from this source proceed all those Actions by which Men's Innocence and Fidelity towards each other are preserved as also by which Humanity Gratitude and almost all the other Vertues are exerted and performed after as certain a manner as the Natural motions of the Spirits Bowels Nerves and Joynts in an Animal do wholly proceed from the motion of the Heart and Circulation of the Blood which judgment or determination being taken from the Nature of things duly considered should without doubt cause us to yield Obedience to all the Laws of Nature as contributing to this Common Good of Rational Agents and may make us also diligently to take care that the same be observed by others so that there may be nothing wanting that can be done by us whereby we may not be rendered as happy as our frail Natures in this will allow since right reason can propose no higher or nobler End than this of all our moral Actions § 4. Yet whilst we compare the Aggregate Body of mankind as far as we can Act by Corporeal force with the Natural Systems of other Bodies I am not unmindful of the manifest difference there is between them viz. That all the Effects of meer Corporeal Systems are produced by the Contiguity and immediate Operation of Bodies moving upon others that are to be moved by them without any Sense Deliberation or Liberty which are only to be found in Humane Actions in whose Motions and Operations on each other though a great difference often intervenes yet for all that it is evident that the Corporeal Powers of Men when exerted are subject to the same Laws of motion with other Bodies and that divers Men may often cooperate to one certain Effect relating to the Good or Hurt of others so that there is the same necessity of a Subordination between Humane motions as there is between those of other Bodies And I must here farther take notice that Men have frequent opportunities of meeting together and also many other means by which they may hurt or help each other by Words Writing or other Actions So that if we consider the Nature of Mankind in the whole course of their Lives it ought to be considered as one entire System of Bodies consisting of several particular parts So that nothing almost can be done in Relation to any Man's Life Family or Fortune which doth
endeavour the Common Good of Rationals as the greatest they are capable of it must necessarily follow That we lie under a sufficient Obligation by all the Tyes of Duty and Gratitude to concurr with God's Will and Design in pursuing and endeavouring this great End § 11. But since God hath thought fit to make Man a Creature consisting of two different and distinct Parts or Principles a Soul and a Body both capable of Good and Evil i. e. of Rewards and Punishments I come now to the other part of this Duty or Obligation by which we are bound by all the Rational Motives or Rewards that Man's Nature is capable of to observe this great Law and deterred by all the contrary Evils or Punishments from neglecting or transgressing it In order to which I shall lay down these plain Axioms drawn from the Nature of Moral Good and Evil which you may find in the Learned Bishop Wilkin's excellent Discourse of Natural Religion Axiom 1. That which is morally good i.e. agreeable to the Will of God is to be desired and prosecuted and that which is evil i. e. contrary to his Will is to be avoided Ax. 2. The greater congruity there is in any thing to the Reason of Mankind and the greater tendency it hath to promote or hinder the Perfection of Man's Nature in the endeavour of the Common Good so much greater degrees it hath of moral Good or Evil and according to which we ought to proportion our Inclinations or Aversions thereunto Ax. 3. So that it is suitable both to the Reason and Interest of Mankind that all Persons should submit themselves to God's Will upon whom they depend for their Happiness and Well-being by doing such Things as may render them acceptable to Him and avoiding those contrary Actions which may provoke his Displeasure that is in short in prosecuting the Common Good of Rational Beings Ax. 4. Hence the Rational Nature and the Perfections belonging to it being more Noble than the Sensitive a moral Good is to be preferred before an animal Pleasure and that which is morally evil is more to be avoided than that which is merely animal Ax. 5. A present animal Good may be parted with upon a probable Expectation of a greater future moral Good Ax. 6. A present Evil is to be endured for the probable avoiding of a greater though future Evil. But since all the Rewards which God can bestow upon us for our observing this fundamental Law of endeavouring the Common Good of Rationals does only amount to the truest and highest Happiness that Man's Nature is capable of it is fit that we sufficiently state that Happiness and wherein it consists For the clearing of which I shall lay down these two plain Propositions § 12. Prop. 1. That which gives or constitutes the Essence of any thing and distinguisheth it from all other things is called the essential form of that thing Prop. 2. That State or Condition by which the Nature of any thing is advanced to the utmost perfection which it is capable of according to its kind is called the Chief End Good or Happiness of such a Being Thus for Example to give you a Scale drawn from the Nature of those Beings we know to be endued with Life or Motion 1. The Nature of Plants consists in having a vegetative Life by which they receive Nourishment and Growth and are enabled to multiply their kind The utmost Perfection which this kind of Being is capable of is to grow up to a state of Maturity to continue unto its natural Period and to propagate its kind 2. The Nature of Brutes besides what is common to them with Plants consists in their being endued with Faculties whereby they are capable of apprehending external Objects and of receiving Pain or Pleasure from them in order to their own Preservation and the propagation of their Species The utmost Perfection of these consists in mere sensitive Pleasures i. e. of doing and enjoying such Things as are grateful to their Appetites and Senses But the Nature of Man besides what is common to him with Plants and Brutes both in the vegetative and sensitive Life consists in the Faculty of Right Reason whereby he is made capable of understanding the Law of Nature and of its Rewards and Punishments either in this Life or that to come to induce him to their Observation and deterr him from the transgression of them Which Sentiments as no Creature in this visible World except Man does partake of so his Chief Good or Happiness consists in the improvement and perfection of this Faculty that is in such Actions as are most agreeable to Right Reason and as may best entitle him to the Divine Favour and afford him the greatest Assurance of a lasting Happiness both in this Life and after it is ended So that all the Actions of Man considered as voluntary and subject to the Law of Nature and thereby capable of Rewards and Punishments are called Moral as being directed by God the Supreme Legislator to the greatest and most excellent End viz. the Common Good of Rational Beings § 13. Having laid down these Principles of moral Good and Evil in order to the setling and clearing the Nature of this Obligation and wherein it consists I shall in the next place particularly declare the Sanction of this Law viz. those Rewards which God hath ordained for the Observation of this Law of Nature of endeavouring the Common Good and those Punishments he hath appointed for its Breach or Transgression But I have already laid down That all Obligation upon the Soul of Man arises properly from the Commands of some rightful Superior Power that is such a one who hath not only force sufficient to inflict what Evils he pleases upon the Disobedient but who hath also given us just Grounds or Reasons wherefore he requires us to determine the natural Liberties of our Wills according to his Pleasure both which whenever they meet in any Supreme Power and that he hath once signified his Will to us ought to produce in our Minds not only fear to offend but also a love of and obedience to his Commands The former from the Consideration of his irresistible Power The latter from their own intrinseck Goodness as also from all those Motives which ought to persuade us to perform his Will For as one who hath no other Reason than down-right force why he will have me perform and submit to his Commands whether I will or no may indeed so far terrifie me that to avoid a greater Evil I may think it best to obey him yet that fear once removed there will then remain nothing that can hinder me from acting according to my own rather than his Will or Humour So on the other side he who can give me never so good Reasons why I ought to obey him yet if destitute of Power to inflict any Punishment upon me for my Disobedience such his Commands may without any outward inconvenience be neglected by
Health of the whole Body So from the knowledge of this Order of divers subordinate Goods and the proportion which any one of them bears to the Common or Greatest Good may easily be deduced how much the Well-being or Happiness of every single Person may contribute to that of the whole Family the Felicity of a Family to that of a Commonwealth that of a Common-weal to the Happiness of all Nations and of all these considered together what proportion they may bear to the Common Felicity of Mankind So that hence you may be easily satisfied how much the knowledge of this one Truth conduces to our right prosecution of this great End and indeed Sum of all the Laws of Nature § 25. Lastly which yet ought rather to have been put in the first place of all let us consider the chief and principal of all the moral Vertues Love or Piety towards God expressed in all the Acts of Divine Worship as Prayer Praise Thanksgiving c. This must needs be a Vertue since it does that which is highly grateful and pleasing to God the Head of all Rational Beings and speaking after the manner of us Men performing somewhat Good and agreeable to his Divine Nature and which also in respect of our selves makes us most happy not only by rendring the Deity propitious to us but also by a nearer spiritual approach and conversation with it in those holy Exercises it puts us in the happiest state we can be capable of in this mortal Life and so makes us more able to perform the great End of our Creation viz. Our contributing to the Common Good of Rational Beings § 26. I have been the larger in laying down and explaining this Law as a Measure or Standard of all good Actions to the end that we should esteem all Good or Evil not as it more or less profits or hurts our own particular Bodies alone but as it may more or less add to or detract from this Common Good So that in comparing of all Goods together whether Natural or Moral we ought still to look upon that as the greatest Good which conferrs most and that to be the least which contributes least to this great End which is therefore to be desired or prosecuted by us with proportionable Affections and Endeavours From whence also may be drawn a general and powerful Remedy against all those inordinate Passions proceeding from excessive Self-Love by which Men are most commonly drawn to hurt or injure others For a Man who thus governs himself will not extravagantly desire any of these outward Things nor suffer his Soul to be disturbed by the consciousness of any Crime who judges nothing truly Good but what really conduces to the common Good of Rationals § 27. Thus I hope I have demonstrated the true Reasons and Grounds of Moral Good and Evil or of Vertue and Vice and have endeavoured to render Moral Philosophy or the true Knowledge of the Laws of Nature a practical Science and not merely Speculative or Notional like that of the Stoicks who whilst they allowed nothing to be really good but Vertue or Evil except Vice and kept such a pother to extol the real Good of the former and declaim against the certain Evil of the latter yet by not giving us the true Reasons or Grounds why Vertue should be embraced and Vice avoided they rendred their Philosophy merely speculative and only fit for those idle Porches in which they declaimed scarce having any farther influence upon the Actions of Life when either their own Affections or any powerful outward Temptation did at any time prompt them to act contrary thereunto For Vertue is only to be esteemed as the highest or most perfect Good not as it is a well-sounding Word or that fills our Minds with some vain empty Notions but as it determines our Actions to their utmost influeence upon the Common Good of Rational Beings which is the only true Piety as consisting in the Performance of the Commands and Will of God by the imitation of his Divine Goodness and Beneficence § 28. So that I shall conclude this Chapter with Dr. Parker's excellent Consideration on this Subject and which being better than any thing that I can now think of I shall make bold to give it you almost in his own Words with a little alteration So that it is now demonstratively certain by induction of Particulars according to the method we have now taken that every Vertue hath some natural Efficacy to promote the Common Good of Rationals and is no otherwise a Vertue but as it contributes to this great End and that each Man 's true private Interest and Happiness is therein contained and inseparably connected with it by the necessary order of Nature i. e by the Contrivance and Wisdom of Divine Providence So that nothing can be more evident than that its Author commands all his Rational Creatures that are capable of any knowledge of his Will and sence of their Duty to act suitably to that Order of Things which he hath established in the World and to that Declaration of his Will which he hath made by that Establishment in order to the bringing about this great End of the Common Good of Rational Beings CHAP. V. Containing an Answer to such Objections as may be made against the Law of Nature thus explained and reduc'd into this Proposition Of Endeavouring the Common Good of Rational Beings with a Conclusion proving this to be the sum of all Laws whether Natural or Revealed § 1. SInce there are two sorts of men who according to their several Principles and Inclinations may make different Objections against this our Method of proving and deducing the Law of Nature and contracting it into this sing'e easie Proposition of our endeavouring the common good of Rational Beings I shall therefore divide them into Platonists or Epicureans Those who put the whole stress of their belief of the Laws of Nature upon innate Ideas or Principles of Moral Good and Evil imprest by God upon mens Souls and who I doubt not may have a true zeal though without knowledge for this Common Good which is more than I can promise for those who falâ—ing into the other extream will not acknowledge that we can have any true or certain notion or idea of this Common Good so as to make it the main end of all our Actions I shall therefore in the first place consider those Objections that may be made by the former sort of Men whose first Objection may be this That it is most suitable to the goodness of God to imprint upon the minds of men certain Characters and Notions of himself and also of those Moral Duties which he requires of them and not to leave them in the dark and in doubt about things of so great a Concernment to them since by that means he would not only have secured himself of that Worship and Veneration which is due from so Intelligent a Creature as Man
besides himself and that he doth truly observe the Laws of Nature towards himself by a temperate and a rational Life As also towards his Neighbour by observing that great Rule of doing as he would be done by in all cases towards others I say such a man tho' never so simple and ignorant in other things doth really contribute his share of endeavour towards procuring the common good And tho' he may not distinctly know all the true reasons and grounds of his own Actions yet if he thus lead his Life and observe all these Rules tending to this End I doubt not but that he will meet with all those Rewards intended by God for Vertuous Actions provided he have never heard of or at least wilfully refused the more perfect Law of the Gospel delivered by our Saviour Jesus Christ when duly proposed to him Thus a Countrey Carpenter may deserve sufficient Wages and Commendation if he can build a House and honestly perform his Work according to those few practical Rules he hath learnt tho' he doth not understand all the Principles of Geometry or Architecture according to which all that he hath wrought may easily be demonstrated to him if he will but take the pains to understand them § 6. There is another Objection which this sort of men may make against our Method of finding out and demonstrating this great Law of Nature in that I make every man's obligation to endeavour it to arise from its being good or evil to himself alone whereby it may seem as if we supposed the honour of God and the common good of mankind were to be postponed and made subservient to the happiness of any particular person To satisfie which Scruple I do in the first place affirm that we do not intend any such thing since we have all along endeavoured to establish the quite contrary Doctrine For I assert that no man hath any Right properly so called to his own Life or Being but in order and as it conduces to the honour and service of God and the common good of mankind I shall therefore now more distinctly declare how these tho' some may think them contrary to each other do very well consist In the first place therefore I desire you to take notice that our Natural Obligation to this Law is not discovered by us in the same order and method as it is constituted by God in the nature of Things for our weak finite Understandings when acting without the assistance of Divine Revelation do slowly enough at first attain to the knowledge of Individual or Single Things and thence taking rise from such common effects as are most obvious to our Senses proceed to their more obstruse Causes until at length discovering one Infinite Being called God to be the first Cause and Creator of all things We from thence collect not only what is his Nature but also what is his Will whereby we do not only find that he is the best and most perfect Being But that as such he willeth and procures the good and preservation not of some few Singulars alone but of the whole Species of Mankind And lastly that he would have us men cooperate as subordinate tho free Agents to this End as the greatest and worthiest we can undertake Which tho' it be the last thing we come to the knowledge of yet is that which is first and chiefly intended by God as the principal object of our Knowledge and the main End of all our Moral Actions So that it seems evident this knowledge of our selves and of things thus learnt from experience and observation was intended by God only to serve as steps to raise us to that larger knowledge and nobler desire of pursuing the common good of Rationals as the sum of all our Moral Duties And that our Wills and Affections towards this end are not to be regulated or directed in the same order by which this common good comes to be discovered i. e. with a respect to our selves alone but from a true judgment concerning the measures of that natural good and perfection therein contained So that tho' we are at first indeed excited to the procuring our own happiness as the prime and most natural motive of all our Actions yet we come at last upon better consideration to discover that this happiness of ours is contained in our endeavours of the Common good of Rational Beings and is inseparable from it as the conservation of any of our particular Members is contained in the health and preservation of the whole Body § 7. And this Proposition that every single man's good is contained in the common-common-good proves indeed that the sanction of this general Law is by rewards and punishments to Every single man But that Every is not to be restrained to my self or any one man alone but extends alike to each other man or all men Since it is evident that these words Every man collectively taken amount to all men as every part collectively taken signifies the whole And tho' the main end intended by God the Legislator from such Rewards and Punishments are obedience to his Laws and the preservation of Mankind as his Subjects which are indeed of much greater value to him than the happiness of any one single person Yet will it not detract from the perfection or sincerity of this obedience if from the consideration of a man 's own particular happiness or misery he thereby comes to consider and understand that God hath commanded him to pursue an higher and nobler end than that alone yet to which his own happiness or misery are inseparably connected § 8. I come in the last place to these objections that may be made by men of quite contrary Principles and who will not acknowledge that we either can or ought to propose this common good as the Sum of all the Laws of Nature and the main end of all our Moral Actions Their first objection may be this That it seems not suitable to God's Infinite Goodness and Power and Wisdom in the Government of Mankind if he did really intend its good and happiness as we here suppose to permit so great a Design to be so often disturbed if not quite frustrated in divers parts of the World by the various Passions and unreasonable Appetites of so many violent wicked and unjust men which if Mankind is well considered do make up the greatest part of this Aggregate Body In answer to this objection I might tell those that make it that the true original of that depraved State of Mankind and from which all that Disorder which we now find in Humane Nature is derived was the Fall of Adam the first Father of Mankind who thereby conveyed a weakness of Reason and that prevailing Power which we feel in our sensual Appetites and Passions to all his Posterity whereby man is become very prone to Evil and too apt to transgress the Laws of Nature But I shall not insist upon this because the
were determined by a man 's own Iudgment therefore also were the Honours and Duties due to Fathers Lastly Where there were no publick Iudgments therefore there was no need of giving Testimony either true or false since therefore the Obligation to observe those Laws is prior to the Promulgation of them as being contained in the very constitution of the Common-wealth by vertue of this Law of Nature which prohibits the violation of Compacts the Law of Nature commands all Civil Laws to be observed For where we are under an Obligation to Obedience before we know what will be commanded we are there universally and in all things obliged to obey from whence it follows That no Civil Law which is not made in reproach to God in respect of whom all Common-wealths are not at their own Disposals nor can be said to give Laws cannot be against the Law of Nature For altho the Law of Nature prohibits Theft Adultery c. Yet if the Civil Laws should command you to take away any thing from another or to lye with any Woman that is not Theft Adultery c. For the Lacedemonians of old when by a certain Law they permitted their Boys privately to take away other people's Goods they then commanded those Goods not to be the Owners but theirs who thus stole them And therefore such a private taking was no Theft In like manner the promiscuous Copulation of Sexes amongst the Heathens according to their own Laws were lawful Marriages § 2. There is nothing that Mr. H hath written more rudely and wickedly and wherein he more contradicts himself than in this Assertion concerning the mutability of the Laws of Nature as to outward Actions since he himself tells us immediately after That the Laws of Nature are immutable and eternal and that Injustice Ingratitude Arrogance Pride Iniquity Acception of Persons and the like can never be made lawful for it can never be that War shall preserve life and Peace destroy it But how the Laws of Nature can be immutable and yet alterable as to outward Actions at the Will of the Civil Soveraign I cannot comprehend But since we have already destroyed those two main Principles introductive to this viz. That no Action is good or evil in the state of Nature till either the revealed Law of God or that of the Civil Soveraign hath made it so and also that the Laws of Nature are not properly Laws in the state of Nature Let us now examine the only reason he here gives us for this Assertion which is this That the Law of Nature which prohibits the violation of Compacts commands all Civil Laws to be observed since our Obedience to the Supream Powers is one of the first Compacts that men made at the Institution of the Commonwealth granting all which to be true yet was it not absolutely or in all things that this Obedience was promised but only in such as regard the publick good of the Commonwealth or tend to the common Good or Preservation of Mankind for if the Civil Soveraign should make a Law that every one might knock his Father in the Head when he came to such an Age and marry his Mother or rob any other man tho' his dearest Friend of all the necessaries of Life All these wicked Actions will become lawful to be done nay every man were obliged to do them if the Law of Nature commanded all Civil Laws to be observed without distinction but he here tells us That no Civil Laws can be against the Law of Nature which are not made in direct reproach to God And upon this Principle no Law can be so but what directly denies his Existence since in his Leviathan Ch. he makes even Idolatry lawful if it be once commanded by his infallible Leviathan the Supream Power But if Mr. H. had but read and considered any ordinary System of Ethicks he would have found that it was one of the first Principles in that Science that the Laws of Nature like the moral Vertues are so nearly linked and have such an inseparable dependance upon each other that the first and prior Laws of Nature can never be contradicted by the latter or secondary And therefore tho' it is true that Compacts are to be observed by the Law of Nature and that Obedience to the Commands of the Civil Soveraign is one of those Compacts which men make when they institute and enter into a Commonwealth or Civil State yet were those Promises of Obedience only made concerning such things which the Laws of Nature have commanded or permitted to be done in order to the common good of rational Beings I grant therefore That the Civil Laws of every Commonwealth as they may appoint what outward Rewards or Punishments they please for the Observation or Transgression of the Law of Nature and also in order to this end may ordain what outward Acts shall be called Murder Adultery Theft c. yet doth it not therefore follow That they have a Power to alter the Nature of all moral Actions and so make a new Law of Nature tho' I own they may enlarge or restrain their exercise in some particular Actions or Instances But since this is best cleared by examples I shall here give you some of each sort First Therefore tho' our Laws give leave to men to converse alone with married Women without any Crime yet in divers Countries it is not so But whoever is found alone in the Company of another man's Wife without his leave it is lawful for the Husband to kill them both because such private Congresses being esteem'd as bad as downright Adultery the Punishment of it is left as it was in the state of Nature to the discretion of the Husband But doth it therefore follow That the Supream Power might make a Law whereby it may be lawful for a Husband to kill every man that should but happen to look upon his Wife because he may at the same time commit Adultery with her in his heart So likewise by our Law the Husband is to be esteemed the Father of all Children which his Wife shall bring forth if he were within the English Dominions at the time when the Child was Begot though he were at that same time an Hundred Miles off and though the Mother should assure the Child that not her Husband but another man were really his Father Yet is not such a Child obliged to believe her or to pay any Duty or respect to that Person though he be really his Father But will it therefore follow that the King and Parliament may make a Law That no Child whatsoever should Honour and Obey his Parents But to come to the Author's last instance of the Lacedemonian Boys I will not deny but it might be lawful for the Spartans as the Egyptians likewise did to make a Law That private Thefts committed without discovery or violence to mens Persons should not only alter the Property in the things stolen bu also pass
that of all others though such cases being Indefinite cannot be certainly or distinctly known § 8. But indeed the care of any particular Persons or a few Men's happiness is rendred useless for the present nor can be hoped for the future if it is sought by opposing or postponing the happiness of all other Rationals because the mind being thus affected a main and essential part of its own felicity must needs still be wanting viz. That inward Peace of Conscience proceeding from a solid Reason and true Prudence always constant and agreeable to it self For whilst such a Person resolves to act by one rule towards himself and by another towards all others who are of the same Nature and therefore need and require the same things with himself he must needs contradict his own Reason and so wants that true Joy and Satisfaction constantly springing in the mind of a Just Benevolent and Good-natur'd Person from the sense of another's good and happiness when promoted or procured by himself So that it is impossible for any Man to be truly happy who not only neglects the necessary causes thereof God and all other Men on whose Help and Assistance his true Happiness and Well-being wholly depends but also provokes them to his certain ruine and destruction so that there is no surer way which can bring any Man to the attaining his own particular Happiness but that which leads him also to endeavour the Common Good of all other men as well as his own § 9. But I here acknowledge that this Proposition concerning Universal Benevolence cannot be of sufficient efficacy for the due ordering our Actions and correcting our Manners until we have first propos'd to our selves this Common Good of Rational Beings viz. Our own Felicity in conjunction with that of others as our main end and that we are convinced that the various Acts contain'd under this general Love or Benevolence are the only true means to procure it The truth of which Proposition is in the first place to be made manifest to us in the next all those other Propositions that can be deduced from thence such as are those less general ones which determine concerning the Natural Power of Fidelity Gratitude Paternal and Filial Affection as also of all other particular Vertues necessary for the obtaining any part of this humane Felicity for as well the whole truth of this Proposition as of all those which follow from thence depend upon the Natural and Necessary Power of such Actions as real Causes producing such Effects § 10. And though perhaps it may at first sight seem to detract from their certainty that they depend upon such an uncertain Cause as Man's Will Yet however it suffices for their truth and certainty that whenever such voluntary Causes shall exert themselves such Effects will certainly be produced Thus in Arithmetick we freely Add and Subtract that is we can choose whether we will perform those Operations or not but if we reckon truly we shall always find the Total equal to all the particulars either Added or Subtracted And there is a like certain and true Connexion between all the Causes and Effects which can be known in any other Science And this I have likewise imitated in this Treatise of Moral Philosophy by reducing all the parts of which it consists to this one Head or Summ viz. Love or Benevolence which Idea I shall improve by enquiring into its several Kinds and shewing the necessary Connexion of this or that particular Action with the Common Good of Rationals which ought to be the great end sought for by us § 11. But since our voluntary Actions alone can be govern'd by Reason and those only which concern intelligent Agents are to be considered in Morals it is evident that from none of all these Actions we can frame a higher or more comprehensive Idea than this of Universal Benevolence which comprehends the willing and endeavouring of all good things and the removal or hindring of all evil ones from those Objects about which it is conversant And this Benevolence extends its self to all Moral Actions as well those of considering and comparing divers goods with each other as of inquiring into the means by which they may be produced nor is it more certainly true that the Addition of several numbers makes a Summ Total than that this Benevolence produces a general good effect to all those towards whom we exert it Thus it is as certain that Piety Fidelity Gratitude paternal and conjugal Affection together with filial Duty make up the chief and constituent parts of this Benevolence as that Addition Substraction Multiplication and Division are several parts of Arithmetick so that it is no material Objection That this Universal Benevolence may be prejudiced or lessened by the wickedness or ill-nature of Men. So that the great end or Summ of the Law of Nature cannot be thereby generally obtain'd as it ought any more than it is an Objection against the certainty or usefulness of Arithmetick or Geometry that some Men should through Lazyness and Inadvertency altogether neglect their Rules or make false Conclusions from those Sciences or should through Ignorance or prejudice deny their certainty So likewise it is in the Science of Morality as contain'd in the Law of Nature which is chiefly imploy'd in weighing and taking a true account of those humane Powers that contribute to the Common Good of Rational Beings which since they may vary somewhat in so great a variety of possible Cases he may be said and that deservedly to have well performed this task who first affirms in general that all those Powers are comprehended under the most general and diffusive Benevolence though he may be able afterwards more particularly to demonstrate that a just division of things Fidelity Gratitude and all the other vertues are contain'd under it and also shew in what Cases they become useful to this end by which means Religion and humane Society with all other things which may render Men's lives happy and safe will be certainly improved and advanced And herein consists the Solution of that most useful Problem concerning the Common good of Rationals procur'd by the most diffusive Benevolence which Moral Philosophy teaches us to search after Nor is the truth or authority of such Precepts at all prejudic'd or diminisht though very many Persons will not obey them or will set themselves to oppose them since this only can be the consequence of it That they will thereby lose their own happiness and perhaps may draw others by their false reasons into the same misery and so I doubt not on the other side but that Men would think themselves oblig'd to perform all the Acts that constitute this Benevolence if they were but once convinced that so great and noble an end as the Common Good of Rational Beings and in which their own happiness is likewise contained will be certainly procured thereby and cannot be had by any other or contrary means
to the place in which they are to be used The Consequence is evident because Right Reason can only prescribe that to be done which will consist with the nature of the Things that are to be used and the Persons that are to use them So that it is evident a Division or Appropriation of Things and Humane Assistances and Labours is absolutely necessary for the Subsistence and Happiness of all Men whence it also follows That this necessary Limitation or Appropriation of any of these Things to particular Persons for the time they stand in need of them is a natural Separation of them from the use of all others during the time they are so made use of By One Thing I mean such single Things as are uncapable of division and to make use of which it is absolutely necessary that it be possessed whole and entire such as are Food Cloths and the like for there are other Things which are likewise called One as one Island one Field and the like which may very well serve for the Use of divers Persons at once and whose Division arising from the positive Consent of Men already entred into Civil Societies or Commonweals I need not now treat of § 26. But from this natural Division or Appropriation of Things and its Necessity for the Preservation of Mankind arises that Natural and Primitive right proceeding from Occupancy which both Philosophers and Civilians grant to have place in the state of Nature supposing a Community of most Things For Right is but a certain Faculty or Power of Acting or enjoying any thing granted us by a Law but in this state there is no other Law but that of Right Reason given by GOD concerning such Actions as are necessary for the Common Good of Rational Beings Therefore since Right Reason requires a separate use of particular Things and Humane Assistances as necessary and conducing to this End there must needs follow from thence a Right to the Use and Enjoyment of any particular Thing during the time the Possessor so makes use of it for a Man hath the same Right to live tomorrow as he hath to day and consequently hath the same Right to all the Means which are necessary for his Preservation Therefore if this House Servant or any thing else that I am now possessed of be necessary for my Happiness or Preservation to day I shall have also a like Right to it for the future as long as it continues thus necessary And in this state there being no other Judge of the Means of my own Preservation but my self I shall have a Right to it as long as I live for the same Reason for which I had a Right to it at first So that unless the Use or Necessity ceasing I alter my Mind concerning it or assign my Interest in it to another I have a perpetual Right in it excluding that of any other during the time that I am thus possessed of it Not that I hereby grant every Man a Right in the state of Nature to all Things which his unreasonable Passions or Appetites shall fansie to be necessary for his own Preservation or Happiness but only to so much of the Means conducing thereunto as any Man whilst he judges according to Right Reason or Equity and the natural Necessities of himself and Family shall rightly so determine without arrogating or assuming to himself more than is really necessary for those Ends and without robbing others of what is also necessary for them which is down-right Violence and Injustice § 27. Whence it plainly appears That this natural Division or Property in Things first proceeding from Occupancy and Possession as it is necessary for the Preservation of all particular Persons so it must be likewise for that of Mankind considered as an aggregate Body consisting of divers Individuals the same Means being necessary for the preservation of the whole as are requisite to all its constituent Parts or Members though this kind of Property may very well consist with Community as at Ord'naries and Theatres every one that pays his Money hath a Right to his Dinner or Place yet none can tell which it is or where it shall be 'till he hath it on his Plate or is actually seated in it § 28. Whence it may appear That these Principles being truly drawn from the Nature of Things will without any more ado destroy Mr. H.'s wild Hypothesis concerning the Natural Right of all Men to all Things that he may thereby prove a Right in the state of Nature in all Men of doing whatsoever they please towards others necessary to their Preservation so that thence may arise a natural state of War of all Men against all And hence it likewise appears upon what grounds every Man hath a Right to his own Life Limbs and Liberty viz. because they are the natural Means by which we are enabled to serve GOD and assist Mankind in doing which we prosecute the Common Good of Rational Beings And from these Principles here laid down it clearly appears That Mr. H.'s Doctrines concerning the Law of Nature and Dominion are not only precarious but manifestly false which first suppose without any sufficient Proof an unlimitted Right of all Men to all Things to be necessary to their Preservation as the Foundation of all Natural Laws and Civil Societies For the proving of which he only makes use of some false and specious Arguments as I hope I have sufficiently made appear in the Second Part of this Treatise § 29. Having now established a Natural Property in such Things and Humane Helps or Assistances as are necessary for Men's Happiness and Preservation in order to the Common Good I shall not concern my self to prove the Convenience of Civil Property as now established in most Commonweals nor shall now trouble you with those Mischiefs which Aristotle in his Politicks hath very well proved would follow from a Community of Things from those unavoidable Strifes and Contentions which would daily arise from our using the Fruits of the Earth in common Only I think I may say thus much That since Mankind is so multiplied in well-inhabited Countries that there is not Land sufficient to be divided amongst all the Inhabitants so as to serve for each Person 's comfortable Subsistence without foreign Trade or mechanick Employments there must necessarily follow a more full and exact Division and Appropriation of the Necessaries of Life such as are Land or the Use and Products thereof as Corn Cattel and the like in order to the Preservation and Happiness of that Nation or Civil Society by whose Consent such a Division and Appropriation of these Things were at first introduced which being once setled by Civil Laws there is the like Reason for its continuance and Men have as much Right to those Things they thus enjoy by the particular Laws of the Countries where they live as they had before in the state of Nature to whatever they could possess by the Right of
Occupancy or Possession since it is evident That this more exact Property or Dominion consisting in a stricter and more limitted use of these Things hath a greater efficacy in order to the Happiness and Preservation of that Nation or part of Mankind which have thus agreed to it than the bare Occupancy or Possession of these Things had before such a Division made or agreed upon nor can it now be altered however perhaps hard and unequal it may prove to some particular Persons since it will always conduce to the Happiness and Tranquility of each particular Civil Society or Commonweal that it should continue as it doth than it should be still altered according to every Man 's particular Fancy or Interest since such a Change can never be made without inconceivable Discontents and Civil Dissentions which would quickly end in open Violence and Hostility § 30. So that from these Principles here laid down there is no Right conferred upon any Man of doing whatever his own wild Fancy or unbounded Appetite may prompt him to but only what he shall according to right Reason truly judge necessary to his own or Family's Happiness and Preservation in order to the Common Good of Mankind Therefore I here desire you to take notice that whatever Right we enjoy even to the things most necessary for our Preservation it is founded if not in the Precept yet at least permission of this great Law of Nature of endeavouring the Common Good of Rational Beings when we truly judge according to the Nature of things concerning the means necessary and conducing to this great End so that it can never be proved that any one hath a right of Preserving himself unless it be first made out how this Right of Self-preservation conduces to or at least consists with this Common Good Since no Rational Man can ever believe that God intended the Preservation much less the Sensual Pleasures of any one Man as the Sole End of His Creation Which Principle being once established as the Foundation and Original of all the Natural or Civil Rights we enjoy our own natural Powers and Rights will appear so limitted thereby that we cannot without injury and injustice violate or invade the Rights of others much less break out into open War against them without just Cause nay all those Arguments by which any one Man can assume a Right to Preserve himself by the Law of Nature will likewise be of the same force to prove that he ought to Preserve others also and that it can never become lawful for us in any State to rob Innocent Persons of what is necessary for their Well-being and Preservation but rather on the contrary that all Men's natural Rights should be secured from the mischiefs of unreasonable Violence and War and Contention which natural Security in a Civil State or Commonweal is highly improved and encreased by the Assistance of Humane Skill and Industry according to the established Laws of Property or Dominion § 31. I have spoken thus much concerning the necessary Connexion between the particular Actions above mentioned and the Common Good of Mankind that by considering their relation to this Great End the Nature of all Humane Actions may more certainly be known and predetermined Since the Dependance of natural Effects on their Causes are absolutely necessary and immutable for as well in the state of Nature or Community as of Civil Society or separate Property those Humane Actions which cause or procure that the minds of all other Persons should not be prejudiced by Errors Lyes or Perfidiousness nor their Bodies hurt nor their Lives Goods Fames and Chastities violated or taken away and also by which a grateful return is rendred to those that have done us good or in short all those Actions by which the true happiness of any one Man or more is procured without injury to others as they always were so they ever will be the certain Causes of the Common Good and Happiness of Mankind and are therefore distinguished by the Titles of moral Vertues as I shall more at large demonstrate in this Discourse when I come to shew how all moral Vertues are derived from and at last resolved into this Principle of the Common Good of Rational Beings But least the variousness of the Observations treated of in this Chapter and their Independance upon each other should render them perplext and consequently unconvincing to Common Readers who may not be able to carry so long a train of consequences in their minds I shall contract what hath been now said into these few plain Propositions 1. That though all particular men are mortal and but of a short duration yet that God hath still preserved mankind without any sensible failure or decay 2. That in Order to this God hath made man to be propagated by Generation and also to be preserved by divers outward means which we call necessaries of Life 3. That these Natural means can no way answer this End but as they are allowed or appropriated to the uses and occasions of particular Persons during the time they stand in need of them and so cannot at the same time answer the different or contrary desires and necessities of divers men endeavouring to use these things after contrary or different manner 4. That the taking away those necessaries of Life which another is rightly possessed of doth not only cause the ruine and destruction of that Person and his Family who were thus possessed of them but by causing a perpetual strife among Mankind will render these things uncapable of being made use of at all for their Common Good and Preservation 5. That such a Strife if prosecuted to the utmost will certainly end in the destruction not only of particular Persons and Nations but of all mankind contrary to God's design 6. From all which we may Rationally collect that God designs the Preservation and Happiness of Mankind as also of all Individual Persons as parts of it as far as their frail and mortal Natures will permit and in subordination to the good of the whole body thereof 7. That therefore there are no surer means to procure this great End of the Common Good of Mankind than an Universal Benevolence towards Rational Beings consisting First in Divine Love or Piety towards God and in Respect of Men not only in permitting each other quietly to enjoy all the necessaries of Life but also in making a settled division of them to others so as to be appropriated to several mens uses or occasions which dictates being given us by God as a rule of all our moral Actions in the exercise of which is contained our truest Happiness as in its violation our greatest Misery is therefore truly and properly a Law and indeed the Summ of all the Laws of Nature CHAP. II. Observations and Conclusions drawn from the consideration of Humane Nature and Right Reason as also from the Nature of God § 1. HAving in the former Chapter drawn such easie
aforegoing be observed So that we are taught from the real Natures of things as well as that of Inanimate Bodies after what manner and to what Degree we ought to pursue our own particular Happiness that is only as it conduces to and is included in that of the Common Good of Rational Agents So we are hence also instructed what Actions are prescribed or forbid by the Laws of Nature since such Actions only are thereby commended as promote this great End and the contrary Actions forbidden which disturb or hinder it which is also supposed by all Princes and States in their Deliberations and Treaties of Peace it being that in which they all agree as contributing to their Common Safety and Preservation viz. That the Powers of all the several states concerned should be so justly moderated and equally balanced that none may destroy or oppress each other Thus between neighbouring Nations not Subject to the same Common Power it is chiefly provided in all their Leagues and Treaties that the Forces of each particular Common-wealth should be so equally balanced by the Assistance and Support of their Consederates and Allies that it should be impossible for any one of them to swallow up or destroy another but that there should be still left to each of them Power and means sufficient to preserve themselves and their Subjects in Peace and Safety as being the main ends for which they were at first ordained by God and Instituted by Men. § 7. And as it is proper to all Natural Bodies that whilst they persevere in their own motion there is likewise a necessity they should also contribute and be subservient to the motions of innumerable other Bodies from the general Laws of motion for the Conservation of the Universe and which Rule being also found true in Animals it seems to admonish us not only as meer Animals but rational Agents that we contribute our particular endeavours towards the general Good or Preservation of all those of their own Kind since it is not only a possible effect but also such a one as depending upon Causes so perfect and certain we may with reason believe that it will endure to the end of the World But if we farther add to these Observations those things that distinguish Animate from Inanimate Bodies they will yet more strongly convince us and make us see more sufficient reasons wherefore not so much concerning our selves with other Corporeal Beings we should be chiefly sollicitous in giving our assistance to those of our own Kind First then the Nature of Animate is distinguished from that of Inanimate Bodies by such a fit disposition of parts and an apt conformation of their Natural Organs as suffices for their Generation Sensation Imagination Affections Nourishment and also all spontaneous motions And it is by these Actions that all sorts of Animals endeavour their Conservation and Happiness for the time that is appointed them and thereby procure the Preservation of the whole Species § 8. But I shall not dwell too long upon these common obvious things which are so evident in themselves but shall from hence deduce something more material to our purpose viz. that from the same intrinseck Constitution of all Animals whereby they are determined to this Endeavour of Preserving themselves there are besides given manifest Declarations that Loving and Benevolent Actions towards those of their own Kind are also necessary for their own defence and constitute the happiest State of Life they can enjoy And likewise that it is farther ordained from the same concourse of External and Internal Causes that all Rational Agents cannot but be sensible or mindful of these Indications The first of these Conclusions contains the Sense and Sanction of the Law of Nature as the latter regards its Promulgation or the manner whereby it comes to be made known to us I shall explain each of them in their order § 9. It is therefore first to be observed That the corporeal Bulk even of the largest Animals is contained within a small and narrow compass as also that the space of Time wherein they can live or be preserved is not long From whence it follows That but a few Things and a small quantity of them are really necessary for their Nourishment and Preservation or where there is need of a Concurrence of more of them they are only such as may be freely communicated to many at once whence they are naturally led to desire but a few particular Things but daily stand in need of divers others in common whose use may yet be well communicated to many at once without exhausting their store such as are the free Enjoyment of Air Light Fire Water c. And farther if we consider the Structure of their Bodies we may observe That the same superficies of the Skin which hinders the effusion governs also the Circulation of the Blood and does at the same time fix bounds to those Appetites and Necessities by which they are urged to seek their own Preservation So that those few Things that suffice to repair the vital Flame which daily consumes are likewise sufficient not only for the Conservation of their life and natural strength but also for inabling them to contribute their Help and Assistance to others of the same kind And lastly the Structure and Capacity of the Vessels in which their Aliment is digested and of those that convey the Chyle as also of the Veins and Arteries that receive it being but narrow require but a small quantity to fill them So that I think no Brute can be guilty of Mr. H's Errour of judging or desiring all Things whatever as necessary for its own Preservation since from the intrinseck and constituent Parts of all Animals it plainly appears That but a few Things suffice to allay their Hunger and Thirst and to prevent the Injuries of the Weather And if so few Things are necessary for their Happiness and Preservation they may very well leave the rest of those Products which the Earth so plentifully brings forth to be enjoyed by others of their own kind since the finite quantity of their Bodies limitting their Appetites to the desiring and their Powers only to the using a few necessary Things From this Use and Necessity there arises a natural Division or Appropriation of Things amongst divers Animals of the same kind as I shewed before in the last Chapter The allowance or permission of which Distribution is the Foundation of all that mutual Concord and Benevolence amongst them and which their Nature requires for their Preservation So that if this innate Love or Desire of Self-preservation in Animals be limited after the manner we have now described this once satisfied there can be no Reason why they should withstand or obstruct the Conservation of others of the same kind either by hindring their Enjoyment of those Things which they themselves do not need or in refusing to lend them their Help and Assistance when there is occasion and that it
within that Law But in Humane Laws because they may enjoyn something amiss there a Right is often left to us to chuse rather to bear the Penalty than to obey them because we are obliged rather to obey GOD than Man in case they command any Action contrary to the Divine Law whether Natural or Revealed § 8. For the further clearing of this I shall premise somewhat to explain this Word Obligation which the Civilians thus define Obligatio est vinculum Iuris quo quis astringitur debitum persolvere That is an Obligation is that Bond of Law whereby every one is obliged to pay his Debt or Due Which Definition doth well include all sorts of Obligations if by the Word Ius or Law we understand that Law whose Obligation we propose to define So that by vinculum Iuris in this Definition we understand that Bond or Tye of the Law of Nature by which every one is obliged to pay this natural Debt i. e. to perform that Duty which he owes to GOD his Creator by reason of his own Rational Nature or else to undergo those Punishments which are ordained for his Disobedience or Neglect So that there is a twofold Tye or Obligation in all Laws the one active in the Debt or Duty the other passive in a patient submission to the Punishment in case of any wilful neglect or omission thereof Of both which we shall speak in their order § 9. But you are first to take notice That none can oblige us to do or forbear any Action but such who have a right to Command us So that this Obligation proceeds from that just Right of Dominion which a superiour Power hath over us and our Actions and as far as we are subject to others we are so far under an Obligation to their lawful Commands which obliges us to a discharge of that Debt or Duty we owe them that is when we are obliged to do or forbear any Action from the Will or Command of a Supreme Power or Legislator to whom when sufficiently made known to us we are bound to yield Obedience to the utmost of our Power And herein consists the Obligation or Duty viz. in the Conformity of our Actions to a Rule such as is declared by the Will of the Legislator So that all our Obligation to the Laws of Nature is at last resolved into that absolute Dominion which GOD as he is the Great Creator and Preserver of Mankind hath over us For I cannot understand a Right especially of Dominion to be invested or seated in any Supreme Power but by virtue of something which may be called at least analogically a Law 2. That every Dictate of the Divine Wisdom concerning Matter fit to be established by a Law is such a Law And so Cicero the best Master of Language speaks towards the end of his First Book de Legibus 3. That the Eternal Wisdom of GOD contains eminently or analogically in it all that we can know to be Natural Law 4. But to know that it is Natural Law or the Dictate of true Reason concerning the fittest means to the best End or greatest Good it is necessary to this purpose That the Supreme Government of all Things and especially of Rational Creatures should be in him who is most able and willing to pursue and attain that greatest End that is it must be setled in GOD. 5. So that by this Dictate of Eternal Wisdom or of performing all Things for the best End the Soveraignty becomes his Right and our Knowledge that this Dictate of Eternal Wisdom is in him assures us That this Right is immutably fix'd and vested in him 6. Although in the method of investigating the Laws of Nature as they subsist in our Minds the first Law respects the End and this concerning the Means comes in the second place Yet in our Thoughts concerning GOD we know that infinite Wisdom comprehends all these Dictates together and therefore that the Dictate or Law setling Universal Dominion in GOD is co-eternal with him and so is as early in his Nature as the first Natural Law the Obligation of which we are establishing in this Chapter And here arises the difference between a Moral Obligation which is that we now treat of and a Civil one or that by which we are obliged to Laws in Civil Governments the former being in respect to GOD's immediate Will as the Supreme Legislator whereas all the Duty we owe to our Civil Magistrates Parents and Masters c. is only in subordination to GGD's Will so declared unto us and who hath ordained this Obedience for his own Worship and Glory and in order to the Common Good of all Humane Societies and Commonwealths that is of Mankind in general § 10. Yet I think notwithstanding all we have said of the Force and Nature of this Obligation it may well enough consist with the natural Freedom of Man's Will since all these Considerations do still but excite not necessitate Him to act one way or other For it is still left in his Power either to chuse that which is absolutely the best in obeying this Will of God or else to preferr a less present Good before it in the satisfaction of his Appetites or Passions And herein likewise consists the difference between an Animal Good or Evil and a Moral one the former being those natural Means conducing to each Man's preservation or destruction considered as a mere Animal without any respect to God as their Author or the Common Good of Rationals as their Rule The latter that is of all Humane Moral Actions or Habits considered as agreeable or disagreeable unto the Laws of Nature ordained by God as a Legislator and made known to Man in order to the Common Good of Rational Beings so that they are thus morally Good or Evil only in respect of their Conformity or Disagreement with the Will of God and as their Observance or Neglect brings either Good or Evil that is Happiness or Misery upon us in this Life or in that to come From whence you may observe the necessity of putting God in all our descriptions or definitions of the Law of Nature as the Author thereof For were it not for his existence in whose divine Intellect the Idea's of Moral Good and Evil are eternally established and into whose will so ordaining them they are ultimately to be resolved Mr. H.'s or rather Epicurus's Assertion would certainly be true That there is nothing morally Good or Evil in its own Nature And it may here be also observed That the great omission of divers Writers on this Subject in not placing God as the Cause or Author of the Law of Nature in their definitions hath been perhaps the main if not only Reason of that false Assertion That the Laws of Nature are not properly so 'till they are established by the Authority of the Supreme Civil Power so on the other side if it be made evident That God Wills or Commands all Men should
me if I think fit unless he is endued with sufficient Power to vindicate the Neglect or Contempt of his Authority Therefore the strictest Sanction which any Soveraign Power can give unto its Laws is when it is not only able but hath also sufficiently declared That it will conferr a sufficient share of good Things or Rewards for so doing and of Evils or Punishments upon any breach or neglect of its Commands So though I grant the whole force of this Obligation is properly resolved into the Will of the Legislator or those to whom the Custody of these Laws are committed all which are included in this Law of Nature since we find God commanding it to whom we ought to yield absolute Obedience though not in Right of his irresistible Power alone but rather as he hath by his Eternal Wisdom and Goodness in his Creation and Preservation of us an absolute Dominion over and an undoubted Right to Command us and consequently we are obliged to yield Obedience to his Laws as they are not only highly reasonable being ordained for the Common Good of Rationals but are also established by sufficient Rewards and Punishments But since the former seem more plainly declared to Mankind and are likewise more agreeable to our Rational Nature which should rather delight to be allured by Rewards than terrified by Punishments I shall first begin with the natural Rewards annexed to the Observation of this great Law of Nature of endeavouring the Common Good Which may be divided into Internal or External that is either in relation to the Soul alone or to the Body and the Soul joyntly considered judice to his Health do so much indulge his Genius as to keep a Table above his Estate and thereby become unable to provide for his Family or to contribute to the publick charges of the Commonweal he is highly guilty of Intemperance though perhaps he may do it without any prejudice to his Health § 18. And as for that other sort of Temperance called Chastity or Continence I need not farther to declare how much the Common Good and Happiness of Mankind depend upon it having already shewn divers of those Evils and Inconveniencies that do necessarily follow the contrary Vices I shall only add That it is sufficient that the commission of this Offence of Incontinence makes a Man guilty of another's Sin as well as his own Therefore I define Chastity to be the abstaining from all inordinate or forbidden Lusts in order to the Common Good or for the propagation of Mankind and therefore is not only confined to the bare forbidding of Fornication but also extends it self to that moral Obligation or Contract which we call Marriage So that out of a consideration of this great End those promiscuous Copulations between Brothers and Sisters and divers other near Relations which upon the first Peopling of the World were lawful because then necessary for the propagation of Mankind are now for the same Reason become unlawful since without an abhorrence of this Copulation between Brothers and Sisters it were hard if not impossible that the Chastity of such young Persons conversing so constantly and intimately together from their youth should be otherwise preserved without an early prepossession of the horrour of such promiscuous Copulations And hence also I suppose That Natural Reason taught most Nations after Mankind began to be multiplied upon the Earth and the memory of their first original Relation they had to each other to be forgotten to prohibit Marriage between near Relations that by this means new Friendships and stricter Bonds of Amity should be contracted between Families and Persons not nearly related in Blood from whence a larger diffusion of Friendship and Kindness proceeding from this Relation might be spread amongst Persons not only of the same Commonweal but of divers Nations and also that those Factions and Enmities which would often happen between particular Men and Families were they only to marry into their own Clan or Tribe may be prevented or if begun may by fresh Alliances be reconciled and taken away So that it is evident That the Reason of this Vertue of Chastity or Continence can no way be truly explained or understood without a true knowledge of the End for which it was ordained viz. the Common Peace Happiness and Preservation of Mankind § 19. I shall only add somewhat more concerning that other sort of Temperance relating to our seeking after and acquiring those outward Goods often conducing though not absolutely necessary to our Well being viz. Riches and Honour and therefore the same general Law which limits our Love towards our selves in order to the Common Good ought also from the same Consideration to limit and regulate our Desires both in acquiring and keeping these Advantages and therefore they are to be sought for to no other End than as they may render us more capable of promoting the great End above-mentioned and to which they ought always to be subordinate The former of these Vertues relating to Riches is called Moderation which is a limitted Care in acquiring and keeping Riches of which I need speak no farther having sufficiently shewn the Measure and Reason of it when I defined Liberality and Frugality with their opposite Vices The other sort of Temperance relating to Honours is called Modesty and may be defined a Justice towards our selves in a reasonable Desire of Honours in order to the Common Good and therefore consists in a due Mediocrity as well in desiring Honours as avoiding Infamy and this Vertue as it curbs the Desire from seeking higher Things than the Person really deserves or may well pretend to in order to this great End is called Humility which is a low or true esteem of a Man's self or personal Merits But as this Desire of the Common Good often elevates the Mind to the performing of great and noble Actions whereby he may acquire the highest Honours it is then called Magnanimity and therefore the Magnanimous is still supposed to be endued with perfect Vertue and a most large Desire of the Common Good of Mankind as believing he hath reason to judge himself worthy of any Honour that he can justly pretend to And I suppose every Man is sensible That it is a part of the same Vertue not only to seek for true Honour but also to take care to preserve it when it is obtained And from the Consideration of these Vertues the contrary Vices are more easily understood for Pride is directly opposite both to Magnanimity and Humility shewing it self in a preposterous Ambition foolish Arrogance or Vain-glory and so Pusillanimity or meanness of Spirit is directly contrary to Magnanimity § 20. Thus we have run through almost all the particular Vertues and do still find in each of them a constant Respect or Tendency to the Common Good of Mankind So that whether they regard our selves or others the same great End is still intended by God the most Wife Legislator And this Law being thus
established there is therein contained the largest and most diffusive Society between divers Nations or Commonweals and the truest Love and Benevolence between all the Members of the same Commonweal as also between particular Families So that there may be hence demonstrated and determined the certain Rules and Measures of true Piety towards God as distinguish'd from Impiety and Superstition and also of all other Vertues towards Men which must be first truly known and applied to their right Objects that the Names of these Vertues when falsly imposed on Actions contrary to the Laws of God and Nature may not deceive us For it is hence evident That all the parts of universal Justice and Benevolence viz. all the particular Vertues contained under them are only commanded in order to this Common Good because it is manifest by Experience That such Just and Benevolent Actions are always endued with a natural Power of procuring and promoting the Common Peace and Happiness of divers Nations and Commonweals as also of lesser Societies and particular Persons of all which considered in their due order and subordination to each other this Common Good of Mankind is made up and consists § 21. And farther it may be hence clearly shewn what is that Right Reason by which every prudent Man ought to prescribe to himself a just Mediocrity in all his moral Actions for it only consists in practical Propositions proposing or declaring to us this great End and also shewing us all the means in our Power whereby we may attain it which are those that in the first place prescribe the Rules of Piety and Divine Worship both private and publick 2. Those that concern the Society and Commerce of divers Nations and Commonweals 3. All positive Laws whether Civil or Domestick tending to the Good of the Civil Society wherein we live 4. True and rational Conclusions drawn from Knowledge or Experience either of our selves or others concerning the natural Efficacy of Things and Actions all which are at last resolved into the natural Power of such Humane Actions as may either benefit or hurt Mankind considered apart or in an aggregate Body as in a Family or Nation since Experience doth not with less certainty teach us what kind of Actions are beneficial or hurtful to Mankind then it shews what sort of Diet will either nourish or destroy us Nor is it more difficult to understand the Truth of this Proposition That a right or equal Distribution of all Things necessary for Life is requisite to the Common Good and Happiness of Mankind than it is to know in Physick That it is necessary for the Life and Health of an Animal that a due proportion of Nourishment be equally distributed to all its Parts or Members both which Truths are grounded on the same natural Principles viz. That the same Things which preserve the whole do also preserve all its parts and vice versa the same Things which preserve all the Parts or Members do likewise serve to the Conservation of the whole which being evident from true Principles is a Science taught by Experience drawn from the Nature of Things § 22. And thâ—â— from the immutable Efficacy of Corporeal Causes of this sort for the production of their Effects on all Humane Bodies depends all the Certainty and Knowledge of Natural Philosophy and Physick So likewise from their immutable Influence or Powers on Humane Actions for the Conservation of particular Persons Families and Commonweals proceeds all the Certainty of those practical Propositions called Natural Laws which constitute Moral Philosophy shewing and determining the Nature of all Vertues and Vices Nor is that variety of Actions which may be prescribed to Persons in distinct Families or Commonweals and under various Circumstances of Life more repugnant to the constant Care of preserving all the Parts or Members which contribute to this great End than the diversity of Diety and ways of living peculiar to divers Climates Ages or Constitutions of Men's Bodies are to the constant Care that all Men have of preserving their own Lives and Healths according to the several Necessities of their Natures For as in these we cannot by doing whatever we will promote this End but Nature hath put some limits thereunto although our weak Understandings cannot attain to a nice or mathematical exactness in assigning them as we may live long and healthfully enough without weighing our Meat and Drink like Lessius so we may likewise procure the Common Good as far as lies in our Power although we do not always perform that which is absolutely or simply best in all Cases it is as much as God the Legislator requires if we truly endeavour it and contribute as far as we are able unto this great End § 23. In the last place I shall here repeat what I have before laid down That this Common Good of Rationals as it is a Collection of all natural Goods and the greatest of all others so it is the true Standard of all other Goods either natural or moral So that by our comparing them with this we may truly determine whether they are greater or less than each other and so whether they are principally to be desired and sought after or to be postponed to other greater Goods Likewise the same measure where the proportion of these Goods is taken gives us a true estimate of all the contrary Evils and so shews us what is more or less to be avoided or repented of § 24. We may also hence learn what degrees of Passions or Affections are lawful for it is certain That only such a proportion of Affections are required as are congruous to our Rational Nature and exactly answering the true Estimate of those good or evil Things by which they are excited but since the Government of our Appetites and Passions is a thing of so great moment as that on which all our Vertue and Happiness as far as it is in our Power depends which Government proceeds from our knowledge of a true measure of all Goods and Evils according to which they are to be judged therefore I shall be the larger in explaining what I have a little before laid down viz. That the Common Good ought to be the Standard of all our Affections and Passions as being so ordained by God and determined by the Nature of Things which is evident in that we have demonstrated this Common Good to be that great End to whose prosecution all Men are naturally obliged by the Will of God as a Legislator who must have given us the knowledge of any thing as Good or Evil to little purpose unless he had also given us a Rule by which we might judge of the several measures or degrees of this Goodness So that this Common Good being once established as a certain Measure or Standard for this End the Good of each particular Person will bear such a proportion to that of the whole Body of Rationals as the Soundness of any one Member does to the
with those of all other men and finding them to agree in the same Wants general Properties and desires of like things necessary for life and an aversion to others destructive to it we can thereby certainly determine what Things or Actions will conduce not only to our own happiness and preservation but to all others of our own Kind From whence there arises a clear Idea of the Common Good of Mankind since as I have already proved one peculiar Faculty of human Nature different from that of Beasts is to abstract universal Ideas from particular things and then to give general Names to those Ideas which though they are but Creatures of our own understanding and not existing out of our own Brains yet are for all that true Ideas of the general Natures of those things from whence they are taken and as for the general Names of them if there were not real notions in our minds agreeable to the nature of those things from whence they were taken and that before any Names imposed upon them they would indeed be non-sense or meer empty Sounds without any Ideas to support them But the before-cited Author of the Essay of Humane Vnderstanding Book II. Chap. 24. grants That the Mind hath a power to make complex collective Ideas of Substances which he so calls because such Ideas are made up of many particular Substances considered together as united into one Idea and which so joined are looked on as one v. g. the Idea of such a collection of men as make an Army though consisting of a great number of distinct Substances is as much one Idea as the Idea of a Man And the great collective Idea of all Bodies whatsoever signified by the name World is as much one Idea as the Idea of any the least particle of matter in it it sufficing to the unity of any Idea that it be considered as one Representation or Picture tho made up of never so many particulars And he likewise farther grants That it is not harder to conceive how an Army of Ten thousand men should make one Idea than how a Man should make one Idea it being as easie to the mind to unite into one the Idea of a great number of men to consider it as one as it is to unite into one particular all the distinct Ideas that make up the composition of a Man and consider them altogether as one Therefore I can see no reason why any man by considering the nature of all the Men in the World may not only have a true Idea of all Mankind but also of the things or means that may produce their common good or happiness as well as a General of an Army of 100000 men can have a true Idea of that collective Body of Men and order all things necessary for their common safety and preservation And if Mr. Hobs's Assertion be true That there is nothing universal but Names his beloved Sciences of Arithmetick and Geometry would also be false and uncertain since they only considering Numbers Lines and Figures in general and collecting universal Ideas from thence do raise true Rules or Axioms in those Sciences from those universal Ideas though there be nothing really existing in Nature out of our own Brains but Units and single bodies And therefore Mr. H. is mistaken when he will have nothing to have any real Existence in nature but single things as if our abstract Idea's of Universals were Nothing because they are not Bodies But if these general Idea's are true as agreeing with the things from whence they are taken it will also follow that they have a real existence and consequently may have Names given them whereby to signifie and represent them to our own minds and those of others we converse with So that whatsoever we find to contribute to the Preservation Happiness and Perfection of all the men we know or have heard of we may as certainly conclude to be naturally good for all Mankind and so a much greater good than that of any one particular Person which Mr. H. himself acknowledges in his Treatise De homine Chap. 11. § 14. where treating of the Degrees of Good which of them are greater or less he plainly declares that to be a greater good coeteris paribus which is so to more men than that which is so to fewer So that if the Rational and free use of a man's Will consists in its consent with that true judgment the Understanding makes concerning those things that agree in one Common Nature and if we can thereby truly judge or determine what things are necessary or beneficial for the Natures of all other men as well as our own I see no reason why we may not desire that they should also enjoy the like good things with our selves and likewise endeavour as far as lies in our power to procure it for them since it is also a Duty imposed upon us by God and that we lie under sufficient obligations to do it we have already proved In short This Common Good of Rationals being thus made known to us may very well be proposed as the end of all our Moral Actions and being the greatest we can desire or imagine the Understanding judging aright cannot but determine that this Knowledge and Desire will more conduce to the Happiness and Perfection of our Human Nature than that of any lesser Good So that if this be greater than any other Good we can come to the knowledge of it will likewise prove to be the greatest and noblest end men can propose to themselves And Mr. H. himself is also sometimes sensible of this Common Good when in the 31 Chap. of his Leviathan in the last Page he hath made in his Latin Translation this Addition That he doth not despair that this Doctrine of his being become more acceptable by custom will at length be received bono publico for the Common Good So that it seems he presages his Doctrine will come one day to be beneficial not only to one particular State or Commonwealth but for the Common Good of all men who are with him yet in the State of Nature And if Mr. H. hath so perfect a Notion of the Common Good of all Nations I think there will be no great difference but in Words between that and the Common Good which we maintain § 15. But to come to a conclusion I hope notwithstanding all that hath been objected to the contrary it hath been sufficiently made out that not only all the Moral Virtues are contained in and may be reduced to this one Principle Of endeavouring the Common Good of Rational Beings But that likewise all the Laws of Nature which are but the Exercise or Practice of these particular Vertues upon their due Objects may be also reduced into this single Proposition since they all of them respect either a man's Duty towards God by a dué worship of him or else towards himself in the exercise of Temperance c. or else
by the due observation of Justice and Charity or the most diffusive Benevolence towards others of our own Kind according to the Order we have already laid down in the former Chapter All which is but our endeavouring to procure as far as we are able this Common Good of Rational Agents 'T is true Mr. H. in his Lev. Chap. 13. contracts all the Laws of Nature into this short and easy Rule which he says is intelligible even by the meanest capacities viz. Do not that to another thou wouldest not have done to thy self Which Rule tho' very true and the same in effect which was given by our Blessed Saviour himself yet without the consideration of the Common Good of Mankind would too often fail For if this Rule were strictly and literally to be understood no Prince Judge or other Magistrate could condemn a Malefactor to death for in so doing he did that to another which he would not have done to himself in the like State Since he himself as well as the Criminal he condemns would then desire to be pardoned if he could But indeed the reason why all Judges and other inferior Officers of Justice are excused from the observation of this Rule in their publick Capacities is Because they do not then act as private persons but as publick Representatives or Trustees with whom the Common Good and Peace of the whole Kingdom or Commonwealth is intrusted which as I have already shewn makes but a small part of the Common Good of all Rational Agents § 16. There are likewise others who reduce the Laws of Nature into this single Rule or Precept Preserve or do good to thy self and any other innocent persons as to thy self Which tho' I grant to be a true Rule as containing our Saviour's Epitome of the Commandments of the Second Table Love thy Neighbour as thy self Yet doth it not express the Reason or Principle on which it is founded for we have no reason to love our Neighbour but as they partake of the same Common Rational Nature with our selves and that our doing them good doth conduce to the preservation and happiness of the whole Body of Mankind of which that person as well as our selves are but small parts or Members Nor have we any particular obligation to endeavour our own particular Good but as it conduces to and is part of the Common Good of Mankind § 17. And as the whole Law of Nature so likewise the Revealed Law given from God by Moses to the Iews and intended in due time to be made known to all Mankind tends to no other end than this great Law of endeavouring the Common Good of Rational Agents For all the Precepts of the First Table of the Decalogue which prescribe our Duty towards God and which our Saviour hath so excellently well contracted into this single Precept Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength c. contain nothing more than this great Rule For as God before he thought fit to create the World and whilst there was yet no Creature to worship or serve him was not then less happy or perfect so neither now he hath created them is he the happier if we worship him or the more unhappy if we omit it For man being created as an Object for the Divine Goodness to exert it self upon it must necessarily follow that all the Precepts of the First Table as well as of the Second are in some sort intended for Man's Good and Happiness as well as God's Honour and Service So that even that Great Commandment of keeping holy the Seventh day which most chiefly respects God's own Glory and Service did also promote the Good and Happiness not only of the Iews God's particular Subjects but also of all Mankind whensoever this Law should be discovered to them So that tho' it commands the dedicating of that day to the Worship and Service of God and is observed in obedience to his Commands Yet even in this he does not design his own Glory and Honour alone nay according to Saint Austin Our Good only but also our Good and Happiness which is then most perfect and compleat when we bestow our time in the contemplation of his Infinite Perfections and Goodness towards us and in rendring him thanks for his unspeakable Benefits So that though I grant he hath made and ordained us for his Service yet he hath so constituted our Nature as to make our highest happiness inseparably connected with all the particular Acts of his Worship And therefore our Saviour reproves the Iews when they found fault with him for suffering his Disciples to pluck the Ears of Corn on the Sabbath day expresly telling them That if they hâ—d known what this means I will have mercy and not sacrifice they would not have condemned the guiltless for the Son of Man i. e. not Christ alone but every Christian is Lord even of the Sabbath-day And in St. Mark That the Sabbath was made for man and not man for the Sabbath Thereby teaching us that the Sabbath it self was also instituted for Man's sake and that in cases of necessity he is Master of it And so likewise our Saviour himself by chusing to do his greatest Miracles of healing on the Sabbath-day hath taught us that the performance of acts of Charity and Mercy on that Day is a great and necessary part of God's Service § 18. But as for the Precepts of the Second Table I need not insist upon them because our Saviour himself hath contracted them all even that of honouring our Parents into this short Precept Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thy self Which is no more than to bid us endeavour the common good of Mankind to the utmost of our power So that as this Law of the most diffusive Benevolence of Rational Agents contains the Sum of all the Laws of Nature as also of the Moral Law contained in the Ten Commandments so likewise is it the Sum of the whole Gospel delivered by our Saviour Christ and his Apostles For as one great design of our Saviour's coming into the World was by his most excellent Precepts and Examples to exalt the Law of Nature to a higher perfection than what Men by the common use of Reason could generally attain to so likewise was it one of the main designs of his coming to restore the Law of Moses to its Primitive Purity and Perfection and to free it from those false Interpretations and Traditions with which the Pharisees had corrupted it For whereas they had confined the observation of that Command of loving our Neighbours only to outward Acts or at least restrained it only to those of their own Nation or Religion our Saviour Christ commands a greater perfection and forbids even so much as the thoughts or desires of Murder Adultery c. And whereas the Iews did suppose that they were not obliged to shew Acts of Charity or
necessary for the Common Good and Preservation and consequently that of all Mankind Sect. 4. A more certain Account of Good and Evil as well Natural as Moral than what Mr. H. hath given us Sect. 5. Mr. H. notwithstanding all he hath said to the contrary acknowledges a Common Good in the state of Nature Sect. 6. The difference between a Natural and a Moral Good and wherein it consists The confounding of these the great cause of Mr. H's Errours in this Matter Sect. 7. Mr. H. sometimes blames this narrow Humour in some men that desire nothing but their own private advantage and likewise confesses that that is a greater good which benefits more persons than what doth good but to a few Sect. 8. That notwithstanding all what Mr. H. hath said to the contrary all rational and good men must acknowledge that to be good which tends to the happiness and preservation of Mankind and which likewise may any ways contribute to effect it That if we do not make the Common Good of Rational Agents the End of all our Actions all our Notions about Moral as well as Natural Good will be various and uncertain Sect. 9. The Heads of the Seventh Principle That the State of Nature is a State of War That all Mr. H's precedent Principles tend only to prove this darling one If therefore those are well answered this Principle must fall His New Reasons in his Leviathan proposed He deduces this state of War from Three Causes in the Nature of Man 1st Competition 2dly Diffidence 3ly Glory Each of which do in their turns make men fall together by the ears A state of War not only that of actual fighting but all that time wherein mens Inclination to it may be certainly known illustrated by a Simile of rainy Weather Sect. 1. Answer to this Argument 'T is first observed that Mr. H. differs in his manner of proving the necessity of this state of War differs in his Leviathan from that in his De Cive Since he here only supposes such a War to be lawful without any other proof Sect. 2. 2 d. Observation That this Author in his Argument here proposed doth still take the Natural state of Man only from his Passions without any consideration of Reason or Experience which is contrary to what he had before laid down when he made Experience any of the Faculties of the Mind Yet that none of these Passions do necessarily and uninevitably hurry men into a State of War Sect. 3. That none of these Persons if governed by Reason ought to incite men to War and that Reason can never perswade men to fall together by the ears out of Competition Sect. 4. That Diffidence of others can never if duly considered be any Motive to make War with all men since such a War is not only destructive in its own nature but also impracticable Sect. 5. Mr. H. appeals to experience of what men do for their own security answered as also his Simile from the Weather Sect. 6 He himself grants that there was never actually throughout the World such a state of War as he describes His instances from the Savage People of America make rather against than for him proved by Authorities of Travellers Sect. 7. His Instance from the practice of Sovereign Powers proved to be of no force Sect. 8. Answer to his Argument from the Passion of Glory which doth not inevitably hurry men to War since it is more often mastered by other greater Passions as Fear of Death Desire of things necessary c. Observation That the same Passions which excite men to War do also with him at other times perswade them to Peace and that those Passions are really the more strong that do so Sect 9. Mr. H's Argument from certain Peculiarities in Humane Nature why men cannot live as sociably with each other as Brutes The 1st Competition for Honours c. Answer No Argument to be drawn from this in the state of Nature Sect. 10. His 2d Reason answered That the Common Good among Brutes differs not from the Private as it does among Men. Sect 11. Answer to his 3d. Instance That Creatures not having the use of Reason do not find fault with the Administration of the Commonwealth That this can be no Argument in the state of Nature before Common-wealths are instituted c. Sect. 12. Answer to his 4th Reason That Brutes have not the use of Speech and so cannót make Good seem Evil and Evil Good Men not in a worse condition than Brutes by reason of Speech but rather in a better Sect. 13. Answer to his 5th Reason That Brutes do not distinguish between Injury and Damage whereas it is otherwise in men Sect. 14. Answer to his last Reason That the agreement of Brutes is natural but in Men artificial Sect. 15. So much granted Mr. H. That men are tormented with divers Passions which Beasts are not And so on the other side men are endued with other Passions which move them more strongly to Concord Sect. 16. A farther Consideration of the absurdity and Inconsistency of this Hypothesis of a Natural state of War Sect. 17. The Heads of the Eighth Principle That mutual Compacts of Fidelity are void in the state of Nature but not so in a Common-wealth His Reason for it Because where Covenants are made upon a mutual trust of future Performances either Party may chuse whether he will perform or not because he is not sure that the other will perform his Part also And of this he is the sole judge But that it is otherwise in a Civil State where there is a Common Power to compel either of them that refuse Sect. 1. The reason apparent why he supposes Civil Sovereigns always in a state of War Sect. 2. Upon these Principles it is altogether in vain for Princes or States to make any Leagues or Treaties of Peace with each other This Notion gives them also a Right of putting to death or making Slaves of Embassadors and all others that come into their Dominions Sect. 3. That upon this Principle of Mr. H's if Compacts do not bind in the state of Nature neither will they be of any force in a Civil State if either all or the major part of the Contractors should have all at once a mind to break them upon pretence that either others do not perform their Parts or that they fear they will not do it Sect. 4. Mr. H. far exceeds his Master Epicurus in this Evil Principle Sect. 5. The Heads of the Ninth Principle The Law of Nature is not truly a Law unless as it is delivered in the Holy Scripture His Reasons for it That though they are Dictates of Reason yet that for want of a Legislator and of sufficient security for those that shall observe them they are not Laws but as delivered in Scripture Sect. 1. That it hath been already proved that this Law of endeavouring the Common Good is the sum of all the Laws of Nature and
that proceeding from God and established by sufficient Rewards and Punishments it hath all the Conditions required to a Law That the defect of other Writers in not taking the like Method hath been the cause of Mr. H's and others falling into this Error This Law not being given in any Sâ—t form of Words no Objection against its certainty or plainness Sect. 2. This Law of Nature being to be collected from our own Natures and that of things is capable of being known even by persons born deaf and dumb Mr. H. acknowledges these Laws to be properly so as proceeding from God His allowing that those Laws oblige only to a desire or endeavour of the Mind that they should be observed a meer Evasion Answer to his Objection of the want of Rewards and Punishments he himself having obviated this by confessing in his Lev. that they are established by natural Rewards and Punishments If the Law of Nature is not properly a Law then there are no natural Rights properly so call'd Sect. 3. Answer to his main Reason That we are not obliged to external Acts for want of sufficient security That if this were a sufficient Objection then neither Civil Laws would oblige Divine Punishments as certain as Humane Sect. 4. That mens greatest Security consists in a strict observation of all the Laws of Nature Mr. H. in some places acknowledges That if we do not observe the Laws of Nature we shall fall into other Evils besides those that proceed from the violence of Men. Sect. 5. Two Reasons proposed shewing the falseness of this Argument of Mr. H. The one the Declaration of all Civil Sovereigns concerning mens Innocency till accused The other from Mr. H's own Concession of a much greater Insecurity that will follow from their non-observation viz. a War of all men against all which is the most miserable State of all others Sect. 6 7. The Heads of the Tenth Principle That the Laws of Nature are alterable at the will of the Civil Sovereign That this is but a consequence of his former Principle That nothing is good or evil in the state of Nature his Arguments for this Principle Because it proceeds from Civil Laws that every man should have distinct Rights to himself as also should not invade those of others it follows that these Precepts Thou shalt honour thy Parents Thou shalt not kill c. are Civil Laws and that the Laws of Nature prescribe the same things yet implicitely for the same Law commands all Compacts to be observed and that to yield obedience when obedience is due was covenanted at the Institution of the Commonwealth and therefore whatever Civil Sovereigns command concerning these things must be obeyed since they alone can appoint what shall be yours or anothers or what shall be Murther Theft c. Sect. 1. Nothing written by Mr. H. more wickedly or loosely nor wherein he more contradicts himself than in this Principle The main foundations of which are already destroyed No Compacts made at the Institution of any Commonwealth which can be of greater force than the Law of Nature The dreadful Consequences that will follow from the contrary Principle Mr. H. allowing even Idolatry it self to be lawful if commanded by the Supream Powers That the Secondary Laws of Nature can never contradict or alter those that are prior to them as more conducing to the Common Good though Civil Laws may restrain or enlarge several particular Instances His Example of the Lacedemonian Boys answered Sect. 2. A Concluding Instance in answer to this from that Law of ours against relieving wandring Beggars Sect. 3. Uncertain whether Mr. H. broached this dangerous Doctrine out of ignorance or design of flattering Civil Sovereigns yet that by this he endeavours to destroy all Vertue and Goodness in Princes and all obligation of Obedience in Subjects whenever they are strong enough to rebel Sect. 4. The Conclusion containing an Apology for the length of these Confutations Sect. 5. The Second Part Wherein the Moral Principles of Mr. Hobbs's De Cive Leviathan are fully Considered and Confuted INTRODUCTION § 1 THough perhaps it may not seem unnecessary after so much as hath been said to prove the certainty and constant obligation of the Law of Nature of endeavouring the Common Good of all Rational Beiâ—gs more particularly to confute the Principles of Epicurus and his Follower Mr. H. it being a true Maxim in other Sciences as well as Geometry Rectum est Index sui obliqui Yet since those Authors have not only poisoned the World with their pernicious Tenets but have also endeavoured to support them with the specious appearances of Reason and Argument it may be expected that we should say somewhat in answer to these Reasons and Arguments Mr. H. the Reviver of those Principles in this Age hath brought in his Book De Cive Leviathan to maintain and support them And therefore I have thought fit to add some Considerations and Confutations of them as far as they contradict the Principles we have here laid down and rather to put them here all together at the end than in the Body of our Treatise of the Law of Nature since there they would not only have interrupted the Coherence of the Discourse it self but would have also disturbed and taken off the minds of the ordinary Readers for whom I chiefly intend it from a due consideration of the truth and connexion of the things therein contained And therefore I have thought fit rather to cast them all together into a distinct part by themselves since if you are Master of that former Part of this Discourse you will easily perceive not only the Falshood and Absurdity of Mr. H's Principles but that it was from his Ignorance or Inconsideration of this great Principle of the Common Good of Rational Beings that he first fell into those Errors and made private Self-preservation not only the first motive which had been true enough but also the sole end of all Moral Actions which is altogether false and below the dignity not only of a Philosopher but a Man I have therefore gone through all his Moral Principles in order and as for his Politick ones if these are false they will need no other Confutation and I have reduced them into certain Heads or Propositions and have truly given you this Sum of Arguments that no man may find fault with me for misrepresenting his Opinions PRINCIPLE I. Man is not a Creature born apt for Society § 1. MR. H. in his Philosophical Elements or Treatise De Cive Chap. 1. § 2. lays down and maintains this Principle and gives certain specious Reasons for it which because they are somewhat tedious and divers of them very trivial I shall rather chuse to contract them than be at the trouble of transcribing all that he hath loosely enough laid down for the maintenance of this Assertion referring you if you doubt whether I rightly represent his meaning to the Author himself in the place
to all things that he hath a mind to and that they are absolutely necessary for his preservation can no more make them become so than if he should judge that Ratsbane were Sugar-candy it would be thereby presently turned into wholsome Food So likewise those general and universal Causes which procure the preservation or mischief of Mankind do depend upon such fixt Principles in Nature as are not to be altered by the judgment of any Judge whether he be a single man in the state of Nature or the Supream Powers in a Commonwealth § 5. But this Error of Mr. H. concerning the force of his Sentence which thus falsly pronounces an absolute Dominion over all men and all things to be necessary for his preservation and thereby to confer a Right thereunto seems to proceed from hence That he having observed in a Civil State the Sentence of the Supream Magistrate or Judge had that force with the Subjects that whether his Sentence were according to the Rules of Law or natural Equity or not it was nevertheless to be obeyed and submitted to Whereas this Submission proceeds wholly from their Consents who instituted the Commonwealth in order to the publick Good and for the putting some end to Controversies since all the Subjects must submit to the Judgment of the Supream Power or Magistrate whether it be right or wrong because they are all satisfied that it conduces more to their common quiet and safety that some few should sometimes suffer through an unjust Judgment than that Controversies should be endless or at least not without Civil Wars or Disturbances So that it is evident That it is only from a greater care of the Common Good than of the Lives or Estates of any particular person that lays a foundation for this Prerogative which though I grant belongs to all Supream Powers yet if this once come to be generally and notoriously abused by constant course of wilful Violence Oppression and Injustice so that the Subjects cannot longer bear it they will quickly make their appeal somewhere else unless they are hindred by some predominant Power or Force over them § 6. But on the other side it is certain That men in the state of Nature cannot admit of any final Judgment or determination of a doubt or difference besides an evidence either from the things themselves or from that trust or credit they place in some mens either Judgment or Testimony whereby all manner of doubt or scruple is clearly removed out of the minds of the Parties concerned and that it appears evident to them that they are not imposed upon neither can there be any end of debates amongst divers Pretenders unless one Party being convinced by the strength of the other's Reasons come over to his or their Opinion or else being satisfied of the Knowledge and Integrity of some third Person as an Arbitrator do willingly submit to his Sentence § 7. For Humane Nature will ever acknowledge a difference between right Reason and false and between a just and an unjust Judgment and 't is only Truth and right Reason that have this Prerogative that they can confer a right on us of doing those things which they prescribe For even Mr. H. in his definition of Right acknowledges that it is only a liberty of using our Faculties according to right Reason whereas all Error or false Judgment whether it be concerning Necessaries for the preservation of Life or in any other practical matter can give no man a right of doing that which he then falsly judges necessary for his preservation And therefore Mr. H's Conclusion where he acknowledges at last That right Reason is that which concludes from true Principles and likewise that in the false reasoning and folly of men in not understanding their Duties towards other men consists all the violation of the Laws of Nature grants as much as I can desire but how this will agree with that loose definition of Reason where he supposes every man's reason to be alike right I desire any of his Disciples to shew me Therefore to conclude I can only allow that to be practical right Reason which gives us leave to undertake things reasonable and possible and that forbids a man to arrogate to himself alone a dominion over all men and all things which is needless and impossible indeed wholly pernicious to his preservation § 8. But to avoid this difficulty Mr. H. and his Followers fly to the Subterfuge of a natural necessity in men that so judge thus falsly and act contrary to the Laws of Nature or Reason And therefore in his Preface to this Treatise he supposes all men to be evil by Nature and makes them necessarily determined by their Appetites and Passions before they are endued with Reason and Discipline to act mischievously and unreasonably and therefore tells us that Children unless you give them every thing they desire cry and are angry and will strike their very Fathers and Mothers and it is by nature they do so and yet are blameless as well because they cannot hurt as also that wanting the use of Reason they are yet free from all its Duties But the same persons when grown up and having got strength enough to hurt if they hold on to do the same things they then begin both to be and to be called evil So that a wicked man is almost the same thing as an overgrown Child or a man of a childish disposition because there is the same defect of Reason at that age in which by Nature improved by Discipline and experience of its inconveniencies it commonly happens to be amended So likewise the Author of Tractatus Theologico Politicus who more openly than Mr. H. but upon the same Principles endeavours to destroy all Religion both Natural and Revealed argues to this purpose in the 16th Chap. of the said Treatise First By the Law of Nature He understands nothing but the Nature of every Individual according to which we conceive each of them naturally determined to exist after a certain manner Thus Fishes are ordained to swim and the great ones to devour the less Therefore Fishes live in the Water and devour each other by the highest Right For Nature considered simply hath a right to all things it can do or its right extends it self as far as its power Since the power of Nature is but the power of God who hath the highest right to all things But because the power of Vniversal Nature is nothing but the power of all the Individual Creatures together it follows that every Individual hath the highest right to all things it can do that is it extends it self as far as its power And since it is the first Law of Nature that every thing should endeavour as far as it is able to preserve it self in its Natural State and that without any consideration of other Creatures but only of it self Therefore it follows that every Individual hath the highest right to exist and operate as
it is thus naturally determined Nor will he allow any difference by Nature between men and other Creatures neither between men endued with Reason and those that have not yet attained the use of it neither between Fools and Madmen and others that are of sound Vnderstanding and his Reason is this For whatever any Creature doth by the force of its Nature it doth it by the highest Right viz. because it acts as it is by Nature determined neither is it able to act otherwise Therefore among men whilst considered as living under the meer Empire of Nature as well he that doth not yet understand Reason or hath not acquired a habit of Virtue lives by the highest Right according to the Laws of his own Appetite as well as he that directs his Life according to the Rules of Reason So that as a Wise-man hath a Right to all things that Reason dictates or of living according to its Rules So likewise the ignorant and foolish hath a like right to all things which their Appetites desire So that every man's Natural Right is not determined by Right Reason but by Power and Appetite For all men are not naturally ordained to operate according to the Laws of Reason but on the contrary are born ignorant of all things and before they come to know the true Rules of life or acquire a habit of Vertue a great part of their life slips away tho' they are never so well educated And therefore he concludes that whatever any one does in order as he thinks to his own preservation or the satisfaction of Sensual Appetites whilst he is in this meer state of Nature it is lawful because the only Rule he hath to act by § 9. Having given you all that can be said for this wicked as well as foolish Opinion in their own words I shall now endeavour to confute it In the first place therefore I observe that this which they call the right of Nature and which Mr. H. defines to be a state of perfect Liberty is in their sense no other than that of absolute necessity And therefore I shall leave it to the Reader to judge how properly this word Right belongs to Brutes Infants and Fools For the Word Right is used by those that treat of Ethicks only in respect of reasonable men as capable of deliberation and judgment and endued with freedom of Action and so subject to Laws For to call that necessity by which Fishes devour each other and Mad-men beat their Keepers a Right were as proper to talk of a Right of Stones to fall downwards no Philosophers but these ever using the word Right for necessity but a liberty left by the Law of Nature of acting according to Reason 2ly The last Author confounds the nature of Beasts Fools and Mad-men who have no knowledge of a God or sense of a Moral Good and Evil with that of rational Creatures who are ordained for greater ends and to be governed by a higher Law than that of meer Appetite or Passion And I desire these Gentlemen to shew us that such unreasonable Appetites and Passions do necessarily and unevitably carry men to act constantly according to them so that the men had then no power left to oppose resist or restrain them and tho' we grant that Children are not yet sensible and Fools and Mad-men are never perhaps capable of the Laws of Reason or Nature and so cannot be subject to them nor are to be esteemed amongst voluntary Agents Yet doth it not follow that those that are of Mature Age and sound Minds and so cannot plead invincible ignorance of the Laws of Nature but out of their own wilful humour or unreasonable Appetites neglect to know or learn or through wilful ignorance transgress it should claim the like exemption For though we are not angry with Children or natural Fools if they cry for or take away any thing they see and pity mad people even while they are outragious with those that tend them Yet have we not the same forbearance and pity for men of sound Minds and mature Age if they do the like unreasonable things and govern themselves by no other Law but their own unreasonable Appetites and Passions Since it was in their power both to have known and acted otherwise and to have deliberated and judged whether it were not better for them to forbear such evil Acts than to do them § 10. Neither can invincible ignorance be any excuse as to them for though perhaps they may not have Brains fit for the Mathematicks or are not able to deduce all the Laws of Nature from their true Principles yet by the Precepts of others as well as their own Reason and the observation of their own Natures as well as other mens they might easily have learnt all the Duties of an honest man that is their Duty towards their Neighbour by that Golden Rule of doing as they would be done by And their Duty towards themselves by endeavouring their own true happiness and preservation by the only means tending thereunto viz. Without injuring others and doing their Duty towards God in reverencing him and obeying his Will when discovered to them also in endeavouring to the utmost of their power the Common Good of Mankind and all which Principles have been ever so natural to men that they have in all Ages acknowledged them to have still remained the same Therefore Mr. H. as also the Author of the Treatise last mentioned are very much mistaken so directly to oppose our knowledge of the Laws of Nature to the Rational Nature of Man as if he were so much beholden to Art for them that he could never have acquired them himself without teaching which were all one as to say That because most men learn Arithmetick therefore it is so absolutely besides or above Nature that no man ever attained it of himself which is contrary both to Reason and Experience since both Arithmetick and Geometry as also Ethicks must have been natural to those that first taught them But I have already sufficiently proved by Mr. H's own Concession That Reason and Experience are as natural to Humane Nature as Hunting is to Dog 's tho in both of them there is required both Exercise and Experience to learn it § 11. Nor doth Mr. H's Excuse which he gives us in the 13th Chapter of his Leviathan signify any thing viz. That mens Passions in the state of Nature are no Sins nor the Actions which proceed from them as long as they see no Power which can prohibit them For neither can a Law be known before it be made neither can it be made till they have agreed upon a Legislator To which may be easily answered that Mr. H. all along proceeds upon this False Supposition That God is not a Legislator without Divine Revelation nor that the Laws of Nature are properly his Laws both which Assertions if they have been proved false in the preceding Discourse it will certainly follow that
the nature of this Being before others Which effects likewise discover to us the hidden powers and intrinsick natures of things These strike upon our Senses and beget a knowledge in us of those things from whence they flow which Goods I grant may be different according to the divers natures of those Beings which they respect Thus a suitable Soyl Air and Moisture are naturally good for Plants because they are agreeable to their nature and are necessary for their preservation growth and perfection So likewise convenient Food Health and Liberty are naturally good for an Animal since they serve for their preservation and happiness as long as they continue to live So likewise That is also good for man which preserves and encreases the powers of his Mind and Body without doing hurt to or prejudicing any others of his own kind nor doth the mind of Man make these Rules concerning the nature of one or a few Creatures of a sort but is able from the knowledge it hath of singulars to make certain general Propositions or Conclusions concerning what is good or evil for the whole Species or Kind whose nature he hath enquired into because since there is the same general nature in every one of the Individuals of this or that Kind the true happiness of one or more of them being once known it is easie likewise to know what share and kind of happiness is to be desired by all of them For it is apparent That the improvement of the Understanding in knowledge and the government of the Will by sedate and regular Affections as also the health and vigour of the Body in which the true happiness of any particular man does chiefly consist do also comprehend if universally considered the common happiness of all men that ever have been or shall be born which also may be affirmed concerning the means to these natural Goods and which are required as necessary to all Mankind such as Food Exercise Sleep and the like And this because of the identity between the parts and the whole that is between the nature of any one or more men with that whole Systeme of Rational Agents comprehended under the general Name and Idea of Mankind From whence it also follows that whatsoever doth good to one member or part of this aggregate Body all the rest being unhurt or unprejudiced thereby may be truly said to do good to the whole aggregate Body of Mankind which Consideration may excite us to a due care of our selves provided it be not prejudicial to others from a consideration of the common Good of Mankind Analogically unto this we may also judge that to promote the efficacy of God's Natural Right to rule our selves and all other rational Creatures is to perform a thing good or grateful to God as Supream Governour of the World and this we do by a due care to promote obedience to his own Laws either in our selves or others And therefore though we so far agree with Mr. H. that that may be called good which is agreeable to any other Being and so must be meant relatively yet doth not this always refer to the Appetite of him that desires it nor yet to the irrational Opinions of any one or more men if they judge contrary to the Rules and Principles of Nature or Reason And therefore though a Wench that hath the Green-Sickness by reason of her depraved Appetite may fancy Tobacco-pipes or Charcoal to have an excellent relish and so to be good for her yet will not her thinking so make them become a wholsome nourishment The like may be said of any Actions or Vices which a Vicious or unreasonable man may take pleasure in such as Drunkenness Whoredom c. which howsoever they may please him at the present yet will certainly in time destroy him in this life or in that to come And therefore it is not true which Mr. H. here lays down That all Good and Evil is only to be taken in respect of him whom at that time it pleases or displeases Whereas every rational Man ought first rightly to judge what things are good and then to desire them because they are really so that is because their natural powers or effects are really helpful or agreeable to our Nature And to consider a private Good as that which profits one person and a common Good as it profits many And that not because it is at that instant desired and approved of out of a depraved Appetite or wanton humour it being only the part of Brutes Mad-men and Fools to measure the goodness of Things or Actions by their present Lusts without any government of Reason or thoughts of the future § 6. But Mr. H. himself doth sometimes talk more soberly and though he doth here as also elsewhere inculcate That every thing is either good or evil according to the opinion of the Person that so judges it in the state of Nature or else in a Civil State of the Person that represents the Common-wealth yet in his Leviathan Chap. 30. when he reckons up the Offices of the Civil Soveraign he makes one of the chiefest to be the making of good Laws Now he there tells us A good Law is that which is needful for the good of the People and withal perspicuous and a little farther he thus goes on And therefore a Law that is not needful having not the true end of a Law is not good A Law may be conceived to be good when it is for the benefit of the Sovereign though it be not necessary for the People but it is not so where you see the good of the People which is certainly that which is common to many is here acknowledg'd by him and proposed as the main end of the Legislator's Duty But this end being thus proposed the true nature of it is first to be known and determined before the Law can prescribe what is good or evil for the People So likewise Chap. 14. § 4. of his De Cive speaking concerning the Rules of right Judgment in a Civil State he tells us That since it is impossible to prescribe any Vniversal Rules whereby all Controversies which will be infinite may be judged it is still understood in every case pretermitted by the written Laws that the Law of natural Equity is to be followed Where you see he grants that the Laws of natural Equity may be known and followed And that divers more Cases may be determined from thence than can be by the Civil Laws themselves but we do only so far contend with him that some Rules of Equity may be so evidently and naturally known that all honest and sincere men cannot at all differ about them though in the mean time we freely grant That there are divers things so indifferent that no human Reason can universally determine that it is more necessary for the common Good that a thing be done or a Case judged this way rather than the other § 7. Having stated what we
to wit the Knowledge of its Terms drawn from the Nature of Things 2. It s form viz. the Connexion of those Terms contained in this practical Proposition and particularly such which because of the Rewards and Punishments annexed to them may make it deserve to be called a Divine Natural Law as proceeding from God the Authour of Nature Or 3. The Deduction of all other natural Laws from this as their Foundation and Original from that Respect or Proportion they bear to the common Good or happiest State of the whole aggregate Body of Rational Beings But as to the Explication of the Terms of this Proposition I hope the Reader will not be scandaliz'd that we attribute Reason to God and have reckoned him as the Head of Rational Beings since we do not thereby mean that Sort of Reason which consists in deducing Conclusions from prior Propositions but rather that absolute Omniscience and perfect Wisdom which we understand to be in God which Cicero himself could not better describe than by the Name of Adulta Ratio or the most perfect Reason And if we Mortals can know or apprehend any aright thing of him it is as we do partake of some part though in an infinitely lower Degree of that only true Knowledge and Vnderstanding So that if we can once rightly judge that the common Good of Rational Beings is the greatest of all others it is no doubt true and no otherwise true than as it is so apprehended by the Divine Intellect As when it is demonstrated to us that the three Angles of a Triangle are equal to two right ones no doubt but the Deity it self had before the same Idea of it So likewise if we have affirmed that we can contribute any thing to the good and happiness of rational Beings by our Benevolence towards them and so may seem to suppose that there is a certain good common to us and the Deity and which we may some way serve to promote We desire to be understood not as if we imagin'd that by our testifying our Love and Honour towards God in any internal or external Acts of Worship we could add or contribute any thing to his infinite Happiness and Perfections but only as judging it more gratefull and agreeable to his Nature if by our Deeds we express our Gratitude and Obedience to him by imitating him in our Care of the common good of Mankind than if we deny his Being or blaspheme his Attributes and violate or contemn his Laws So likewise if in our Thoughts Words and Actions we express our Worship and Love towards him we doubt not but it is more pleasing and agreeable to his Divine Nature than if by the contrary Actions we should signifie our neglect or hatred of him For if we abstractively compare any two rational Natures together we must acknowledge a greater Similitude when one of them agrees and co-operates with the other than if we should suppose a Disagreement or Discord between them or that the End or Design intended by the one should be crossed or opposed by the other Neither do I see what can hinder but that the same may be affirmed if one of these rational Natures be supposed to be God and the other only Man Therefore as it is known by our common Sense that it is more gratefull to any Man to be beloved and honoured than to be hated and contemned So it may be found by a manifest Analogy of reason that it is more gratefull to God the Head of rational Beings to be belov'd and honour'd by the Service and Worship of us Men than to be hated and contemned For as the Desire of being beloved argueth no Imperfection in us so likewise in God it is so far from giving the least Suspicion thereof that on the contrary it rather argues his Goodness since our Natures are perfected to the highest Degree they are capable of by our Love to him and Obedience to his Commands So that when we speak of any Good common to us with the Divine Nature it is only to be understood Analogically for those things which we perceive to conserve or perfect our own Nature we call gratefull to us that is as they render the Mind pleased and full of Ioy Pleasure and Satisfaction And though we confess we cannot contribute any thing to the infinite Perfection of the Deity Yet since this Ioy or Complacency proceeding from our Love and Service towards him may be conceived without any Imperfection they I think may be safely attributed to his Divine Nature and look'd upon as a sort of good endeavoured by us for him since God esteems our Love and Service as the only Tribute we can pay him and therefore he hath inseparably annexed the highest Rewards to this Love of himself as shall be proved in this following Discourse which certainly he would never have done unless it had been his Will that we should thus love and worship him So that though I grant that the Divine Good or Happiness is not at all advanced by our Worship of him yet will not this at all derogate from our definition of endeavouring the Common good of Rational Beings which may be made out by these following Considerations 1. That all Rational Beings or Agents are and must be considered together as naturally and necessarily constituting one intellectual System or Society because they agree together to prosecute one chief End Viz. The good of the Vniverse or World especially of that intellectual System by the fittest Means applicable to that End since whilst they are truly rational they cannot differ in judging what is that best End nor avoid chusing the same necessary Means leading thereunto 2. That although God the Head of this intellectual System be indeed uncapable of any Addition to his infinite Happiness and Perfection yet the whole System in as much as it includes all finite rational Beings is capable of Improvement in these its finite parts which Improvement God cannot only desire but ever did and will promote both by his own Power as also by that of all subordinate voluntary Agents whereby God's Essential Goodness becomes manifest to us And the good of the whole System may reasonably be judged as grateful or pleasing to God the head thereof although it can add nothing to himself thus in Embryons all the other Members daily grow and improve after the Head or Brain is supposed to have attained its full bigness These voluntary or free Actions of the subordinate Agents when they concur with God's wisdom and goodness are naturally and evidently known to be more pleasing as being rewarded by him than malevolent Actions opposite to this chief end which fight both against God and Men nor does the consideration of God's rewarding such good Actions imply any addition to his Divine Perfections So that our Benevolence towards God and consequently our worship of him is but our free acknowledgment that he naturally and essentially is what he ever was and will
be the same infinite good and wise Disposer and Governour of the whole System of rational Beings and this our benevolence by giving him Glory Love Reverence and Obedience fulfils all the Duties of humanity towards those of our own kind which answers both the Tables of the moral or natural Law and in this consent of our minds with the divine Intellect consists that compleat harmony of the Vniverse of intellectual Beings The great influence of these Principles upon all the parts of natural Religion may be more fully express'd and made out by these following considerations 1. The voluntary acknowledgment and consent of our minds to the Perfections of the divine Nature and Actions include the agreement and concurrence of our chief Faculties viz. The understanding and will therewith and moreover naturally excite all our Affections to comply with them and so strongly dispose us in our future Life and Actions to compose our selves to the imitation thereof to the utmost of our Abilities particularly these Principles naturally produce in us First Praises and Thanksgivings to God private and publick for goods already done to our selves or others wherein the Essence of Prayer is contained 2. Hence also arise Hope Affiance or Trust in God which I willingly acknowledge is fullest of assurance when founded not only on observations or past experience of Providence but hath also revealed promises annex'd relating to future Good 3. To conclude when our Acknowledgment and high esteem of the divine Attributes move us to the imitation thereof we must needs thereby arise to those high degrees of Charity or the endeavour of the greatest publick good which we observe in God to prosecute and such Charity imports not only exact Iustice to all but that overflowing bounty tenderness and sympathy with others beyond which humane Nature cannot arrive because these not only harmoniously consent with the like Perfections in God but also co-operate with him to the improvement of the finite parts of the rational System whereof he is the infinite yet Sympathizing head who declares he takes all that is done to the Members of this intellectual Society as done to himself Nevertheless I profess my self to understand this Sympathy or compassion in God in such a Sence only as it is understood in Holy Writ for that infinite concern for the good of his best Creatures which is contained in his infinite goodness and is a real perfection of his Nature not implying any mistake of others for himself nor any capacity of being lessened or hurt by the power of any mans malice but yet fully answers nay infinitely exceeds that solicitous care and concern for the good of others which Charity and Compassion work in the best of men In short if the Reader will take the pains to peruse the Three first Chapters of this Discourse he will find that we have in explaining the terms of this Proposition not only given a bare interpretation of Words but also have proposed the true Notions and Natures of those things from whence they are taken as far as is necessary for our purpose and may observe that by one and the same labour we have directly and immediately explained the Power and necessity of those humane Actions which are required to the common Happiness of all men and also to the private good and necessity of particular Persons Altho' it seemed most convenient to use such general words which may in some Sence be attributed to the Divine Majesty and to have done it with that Design that by the help of this Analogy thus supposed not only our obligation to Piety and Vertue but also the Nature of Divine Iustice and Dominion may be from hence better understood But as for what concerns the form of this Proposition it is evident that it is wholly practical as that which determines concerning the certain effects of humane Actions But it is also to be noted that altho' the words conduces or renders in either of these Propositions are put in the present Tense Yet it is not limited to any time present but abstracts from it And because its truth doth chiefly depend upon the Identity of the whole with the parts it is as plainly true of all future time and is as often used by us in this Discourse with respect to future as well as present Actions And therefore this Proposition is more fit for our purpose because built upon no particular Hypothesis for it doth not suppose men born in a Civil State nor yet out of it neither see any Kindred or Relation to be among men as derived from the same common Parents as we are taught by the Holy Scriptures since the obligation of the Laws of Nature is to be demonstrated to those who do not yet acknowledge them Neither on the other side doth it suppose as Mr. H. doth in his de Cive a great many men already grown and sprung up out of the Earth like Mushrooms But our Proposition and all those things which we have deduced from it might have been understood and acknowledged by the first Parents of mankind if they had only considered themselves together with God and their Posterity which was to come into the world Neither may it less easily be understood and admitted by those Nations which have not yet heard of Adam and Eve Neither may it be amiss to observe concerning the Sence of this Proposition that in the same words in which the Cause of the greatest and best effect is laid down there is also delivered in short the means to the chiefest end because the effect of a rational Agent after it is conceived in its mind and that it hath determined to bestow its endeavours in producing it is called the End and the Acts or Causes by which it endeavours to effect it are called the means and from this observation may be shown a true method of reducing all those things which Moral Philosophers have spoken about the means to the best end into natural Theorems concerning the Power of humane Actions in producing such Effects and in this form they may more easily be examined whether they are true or not and may be more evidently demonstrated so to be and also we may hence learn by the like Reason how easily all true knowledge of the force of those natural Causes which we may any way apply to our use does suggest fit Mediums for the attaining of the end intended and so may be applyed to Practice according to occasion Lastly from thence it appears that either of these Propositions which we have now laid down do so far approach to the nature of a Law as they respect an end truly worthy of it viz. The common good of all rational Beings or else if you please to word it otherwise the Honour or Worship of God conjoyned with the common Good and Happiness of mankind And tho' it doth not yet appear that this Proposition is a Law because the Lawgiver is not yet mentioned nevertheless I doubt
and that the Loss or Deprivation of this Felicity doth necessarily adhere as a Punishment to the opposite Actions The former of these which declares the true Causes of all that Felicity which particular Persons can thereby obtain we have proved from Natural Effects found by Experience The latter viz. that Piety to God and Charity or Benevolence towards all Men are contained in the Endeavour of the common Good and we have also proved in the fourth Chapter that all Vertues both private and publick are contained in this Endeavour But because the Connexion of Rewards and Punishments which follow those Acts which are for the common Good or opposite to it is something obscured by those Evils which often befall good Men and those good Things which too frequently happen to Evil ones it is enough to our Purpose to shew that notwithstanding all these the Connexion between them is so sufficiently constant and manifest in the Nature of things that from thence may be certainly gathered the Sanction of the Law of Nature commanding the former and prohibiting the latter Actions And we may suppose those Punishments to suffice for its Sanction which all things rightly weighed much exceed the Gain that may arise from any Act done contrary to this Law But in comparing of the Effects which do follow good Actions on one hand and Evil ones on the other those good or evil Things ought not to be reckoned in to the Account which either cannot be acquired or avoided by any humane Prudence or Industry such as are those which proceeding from the Natural Necessity of External Causes may happen to any one by mere Chance which are wont to fall out alike both to good and bad Therefore we shall only take those into our Account which may be foreseen and prevented by humane Foresight as some way depending upon our own Wills or Acts. But I must also acknowledge that these Effects do not all depend upon our own particular Powers but many of them do also proceed from the good Will and Endeavours of other Rationals yet since it may be known from their Natures as they are is agreeable to our own that the common Good is the best and greatest End which they can propose to themselves and that their Natural Reason requires that they should act for an End and rather for this than any other less good or less perfect And that it is moreover known by Experience that such Effects of Vniversal Benevolence may be for the most part obtained from others by our own benevolent Actions it is just that those Effects should be numbred or esteemed among those Consequences which do for the most part so fall out because every Man is esteemed able to do whatever he can perform or obtain by the Assistance of others So that the whole Reward which is connected to good Actions by the natural Constitution of Things is somewhat like those Tributes of which the publick Revenues consist which do not only arise out of constant Rents but also out of divers contingent Payments such as Custom or Excise upon Commodities whose value although it be very great yet is not always certain though they are often farmed out at a certain Rate Therefore in the reckoning up of these Rewards not only those parts thereof ought to come into Account which immutably adhere to good Actions such as are that Happiness which consists in the Knowledge and Love of God and good Men the absolute Government of our Passions the sweet Harmony and Agreement betwixt the true Principles of our Actions and all the parts of our Lives the Favour of the Deity and the Hopes of a blessed Immortality proceeding from all these But there ought also to be taken into the Account all those Goods which do though contingently adhere to them and which may either happen to us from the good Will of others or flow from that Concord and Society which is either maintained between divers Nations or those of the same Common-wealth and which we do as far as we are able procure for our selves by such benevolent Actions And by the like Reason we may also understand of what particulars all that Misery or those Punishments may consist which is connected with those Acts that are hurtfull to the common Good So that all of us may learn from the Necessity of the Condition in which we are born and live to esteem contingent Goods and to be drawn to act by the Hopes of them for the Air it self which is so necessary for our subsistence and Preservation doth not always benefit our Bloud or Spirits but is sometimes infected with deadly Steams and Vapours Nor can our Meat Drink or Exercise always preserve our Lives but do often generate Diseases And Agriculture it self doth not always pay the Husband-man's Toyl with the expected Gain but sometimes he even loses by it And sure we are not less naturally drawn to the Endeavour of the common Good than we are to such natural Actions from the Hope of a Good that may but probably proceed from them But how justly we may hope for a considerable Return from all others joyntly considered for all our Labours bestowed upon the common Good we shall be able to make the best Account of when we consider what our own Experience and the History of all Nations for the time past may teach us to have befallen those who have either regarded or despised this great End But because the whole Endeavour of this common Good contains no more but the Worship of the Deity the Care of Fidelity Peace and Commerce betwixt Nations and the instituting and maintaining Government both Civil and Domestick as also particular Friendships as the parts thereof taken together it is manifest that the Endeavour thereof exprest by a mutual Love and Assistance must in some Degree be found among all Nations as necessary to their own Happiness and Preservation Nay it seems farther manifest to me that those who attain but to the Age of Manhood do owe all those past Years much more to the Endeavour of others bestowed upon the common Good than to their own Care which in their tender Age was almost none at all For we then do altogether depend upon and owe our Preservation to that Obedience which others yield as well to Oeconomical Precepts as to all Laws both Civil and Religious which do wholly proceed from this Care of the common Good Whereas it is certain that if afterwards we expose our Lives to danger Yea if we lose them for the publick Good we should lose far less for its sake than we did before receive from it for we do then only lose the uncertain Hopes of future Enjoyments whereas it is certain that scarce so much as the Hope of them can remain to particular Persons where the common Good is destroyed for we have thence received the real Possession of all those Contentments of Life with which we are blest And therefore we are bound in
or Felicity of the People And sure this could have no Foundation but as the Felicity of any particular People or Nation is contained in general or the common Good and Happiness of rational Beings And tho' I grant that our Faculties are not fitted to pierce into the internal Fabrick and real Essences of Bodies as the above-mentioned Author of the Essay of humane Understanding hath very well observed Yet in the same place he also grants That the Knowledge we have of them is sufficient to discover to us the Being of a God and of a Divine Providence and that the Knowledge of our selves and the Nature of other things are sufficient to lead us into a full and clear Discovery of our Duty towards him as being the great Concernment of our Lives and that it becomes us as rational Creatures to employ our Faculties about what they are most adapted to and follow the direction of Nature where it seems to point us out the way So that it is highly reasonable to conclude that our proper Employment lies in moral rather than natural Truths And therefore the same Author hath in his Fourth Book and Third Chapter pag. 274. this Passage The Idea of a supream Being infinite in Power and Wisdom whose Workmanship we are and on whom we depend and the Idea of our selves as understanding rational Creatures being such as are clear to us these would I suppose if duly considered and pursued afford such Foundations of our Duty and rules of Action as might place Morality amongst the Sciences capable of Demonstration wherein I doubt not but from Principles as incontestable as those of the Mathematicks by necessary Consequences the measures of Right and Wrong might be made out to any one that will apply himself with the same indifferency and attention to the one as he doth to the other of these Sciences And in the Twelfth Chapter of the same Book he saith p. 325. This gave me the Confidence to advance that Conjecture which I suggested Chap. 3. viz. That Morality is capable of Demonstration as well as Mathematicks For the Idea's that Ethicks are conversant about being all real Essences and such as I imagine have a discoverable Connexion and Agreement one with another So far as we can find their Habitudes and Relations so far we shall be possessed of certain real and general Truths And I doubt not but if a right method were taken a great part of Morality might be made out with that clearness that could leave to a considering Man no more reason to doubt than he could have to doubt of the Truth of any Propositions in Mathematicks which have been demonstrated to him And I am confident our Author hath found out this only right method and made use of the fittest Demonstrations for the Proof of this Principle of the common Good of rational Beings as the Sum of all natural Laws so that I hope you will have no cause to doubt but that he hath as fully demonstrated it to be so as if he had given us so many Mathematical Demonstrations of it But since as in the Mathematicks there are required certain Principles or Postulatums which must be taken for granted before its professors are able to demonstrate any thing from them so we shall reduce all we have to say on this Subject into Six plain Postulata the Three first of which having been already made out by others both in Latin and English I shall wave the Proof of them and shall confine my self wholly to the Three last The Propositions are these 1. That there is one Infinite most powerful intelligent Being which we call God who is the Author and Creator of the Vniverse or World 2. That God as he hath created so he likewise governs and preserves this World consisting of Bodies and Spirits by certain corporeal Motions and Dictates of Reason by which Spirits act as the chief Instruments of his Providence 3. That God thereby maintains and preserves all his Creatures and farther designs the Happiness and Preservation of such of them as are sensible as far as their frail and mortal Natures will admit and that Power which God hath given to mankind over them 4. That of all Animate or sensible Creatures God hath made Man alone to be conscious of his own Existence and also that it is more particularly his Duty to act as his subservient Instrument not only for his own private Good and Happiness but also for the common Good of all rational Beings 5. That this knowledge of God's Will as our Duty is plainly discovered to us from the Being and Nature of God as also of our selves and of those things without us which he hath made necessary for our use and Preservation 6. That these Dictates or Conclusions of right reason all tending to one great End viz. the common Good of rational Beings in which our own is contained being given us by God as a Legislator for the well governing or right ordering of our Actions to this End constitute the Law of Nature as being established by sufficient Rewards and Punishments both in this Life and in that to come TO THE BOOKSELLER THE Learned Authour of this Treatise sent it to me then being in a Private Station above a year ago but then concealed his Name from me either through his great Modesty or because in his Prudence he thought that if I knew him I might be biassed in my judgment by the Honour which I am obliged to have to his Family and especially to his Grandfather by his Mother's side the most Learned Primate of Ireland Wherefore I read the Book without any respect to the unknown Writer and considered only the Merits of the Performance Thus I found that he had not only well translated and epitomized in some places what I had written in Latin but had fully digested the chief things of my Design in a well chosen Method of his own with great Perspicuity and had added some Illustrations of his own or from other Learned Authours with a Philosophical Liberty which I must needs allow For this Reason I judged that the then unknown Authour had give too low a Title to his Book and that I was to esteem him a good Hyperaspistes or able Second in this Combat for Truth and Justice rather than a Translater or Epitomizer of what I had written This obliged me to enquire diligently after the Authour's Name and Quality and then I soon obtained the Favour and Honour of a more intimate Conversation with him Hereby I soon found that I might safely leave the Maintenance of that good Cause in which I was engaged to his great Abilities and Diligence And I hope that since this Learned Gentleman hath conquer'd the Difficulties of the Search into the Rise of the Laws of Nature now many of our younger Gentry will be encouraged to follow him in the way which this his Treatise makes plain before them For from thence they may receive assistance not
only to discern the Reasonableness of all Vertue and Morality which is their Duty and Ornament as they are Men but also they may here see the true Foundations of Civil Government and Property which they are most obliged to understand because as Gentlemen they are born to the greatest Interest in them both I need add no more to give you Assurance that I freely consent to your Printing of this Book and am Your affectionate Friend Ric. Peterborough The Contents of the First Chapter A Brief Repetition of the Preface That the Law of Nature can only be learnt from the Knowledge of a God and from the Nature of Things and of Mankind in general § 1. A state of the Question between us and the Epicureans and Scepticks § 2. The method proposed in what manner we are to enquire into the Nature of things and of mankind in order to prove certain general Propositions that shall carry with them the Obligation of Natural Laws § 3. The Soul supposed to be rafa Tabula without any innate Idea's Our method proposed of considering God as the Cause of the World and all Things and humane Actions as subordinate causes and effects either hindring or promoting our common Happiness and Preservation § 4. All the Laws of Nature deduceable from hence as so many practical Propositions and all our observations or knowledge of it reduceable to one Proposition of the highest Benevolence of rational Beings towards each other as the summ of all the Laws of Nature and what is meant by this Benevolence § 5. What things are necessary to be known or supposed in order to the knowledge of this universal Benevolence § 6. The Connexion of the Terms of this Proposition proved and what is to be collected from thence The true happiness of single Persons inseparable from that of Mankind The general Causes of its Happiness to be considered in the first place § 7. Therefore no Man's particular Happiness can be opposed or preferred before the Happiness of all other rational Beings The contrary practice unreasonable and unjust § 8. Yet that this Proposition cannot be of sufficient efficacy till we have proposed the Common Good of Rationals for the great End of all our Actions § 9. The Effects of this Proposition not prejudiced by the ill use of Men's Free-wills § 10 11. By what steps and degrees the Knowledge of this Common Good comes to be conveyed into our minds from the nature of things § 12. First Natural Observation that in our free use and enjoyment of all the outward Necessaries of Life and in our mutual administring them to each other consists all men's happiness and preservation from whence also proceeds a Notion of the Common Good of Rationals § 13. That Men are able to contribute more to the good and happiness of those of their own kind than any other Creatures § 14. Nothing a surer help and defence to Mankind than the most sincere and diffusive Benevolence § 15. Nor any thing more destructive to it than their constant Malice and Ill-will § 16. That these Principles are as certain as any in Arithmetick and Geometry notwithstanding the supposition of Men's free-will § 17. Yet that they are only Laws as proceeding from God the first Cause and as establish'd with fit Rewards and Punishments § 18. That from these natural and general Observations we attain to a true knowledge of the Causes of all Men's happiness and that by the Laws of Matter and Motion these Causes act as certainly as any other § 19,20 Hence arises a true notion of things naturally and unalterably good or evil § 21. That Men's natural Powers and the things necessary for life can neither be exerted nor made use of contrary to the known rules of Matter and Motion § 22. Some Conclusions deduceable from hence as that we chiefly concern our selves about those things and actions that are in our Powers § 23. No man self-sufficient to procure all things necessary for his own preservation and happiness and therefore needs the good-will and assistance of others § 24. None of these necessaries for Life can produce the Ends design'd but as they are appropriated to Man's particular uses and necessities for the time they make use of them § 25. From whence arises the Right of Occupancy or Possession which may be exercised even during a natural Community of most things § 26. That as this natural Division and Propriety in things is necessary to the preservation of particular Persons so it is also of Mankind considered as an aggregate Body § 27. That these Principles destroy Mr. H's Hypothesis of the Right of all Men to all things in the state of nature § 28. The necessity of a farther Division and Appropriation of things now Mankind is multiplyed on the Earth § 29. No Man hath a Right to any thing any farther than as it conduces or at least consists with the common good of rational Beings § 30. The knowledge of these natural Causes and Effects alike certain in a natural as civil State with a brief Recapitulation of the Grounds and Arguments insisted on in this Chapter § 31. The Contents of the Second Chapter MAN to be considered as a natural Body as an Animal and also as a rational Creature Some Observations from the first of these Considerations as that humane Bodies and Actions are subject to the same Laws of Matter and Motion with other things § 1 2. No Actions or Motions more conducive to Man's happiness than what proceed from the most diffusive Benevolence § 3. Mankind considered as a System of natural Bodies doth not make any considerable difference between them when considered as voluntary Agents endued with sense but that they rather act more powerfully thereby § 4. Men's greatest security from Evils and hopes of obtaining Good depends upon the good-will and voluntary Assistance of others § 5. Several natural Conclusions drawn from these Observations § 6. The like being found true in animate as well as inanimate Bodies will make us more sollicitous towards the general good of those of our own kind § 7. That loving or benevolent Actions towards each other constitute the happiest state we can enjoy and also it is ordained by a concourse of Causes that all rational Beings should be sensible of these Indications § 8. This proved from several natural Observations as 1. That the bulk of the Bodies of Animals being but narrow the things necessary for their preservation can be but few and most of them communicable to many at once and so requires a limited self-love consistent with the safety and happiness of others § 9. 2. That Creatures of the same kind cannot but be moved to the like affections towards others as towards themselves from the sense of the similitude of their natures § 10. Animals do never deviate from this natural state but when they are seized with some preternatural Disease or Passion which as oft as it happens are absolutely destructive to
not some way or other either benefit or prejudice those things which are most dear to others also as the motion of any one Body in the System of the World Communicates it self to many others For that great Prerogative of Knowledge and Understanding with which Man is endued supplies the Contiguity required for motion in other Bodies Men being often excited to Action by certain Arbitrary signs or words by which they understand what hath been done by others in places far distant So also our Intellect apprehending a likeness of Desires and Aversions between those of the same Species with it self as to things necessary or hurtful to Life as also being able to remember other Men's Actions towards themselves or those they love are from thence excited to hope for or expect the like things from them and are also provoked to a requital when occasion is offered Such Properties being plainly Natural and constant in Humane Nature are no less efficacious to excite Men to such Actions or motions than a mutual contact between Bodies is to Communicate motion between all the parts of any Corporeal System § 5. From which Natural Observations it is plainly manifest that particular Men may hence Learn that both their greatest Security from Evil and all their hopes of obtaining any Good or Assistance from others towards making themselves Happy doth truly and necessarily depend upon voluntary Actions proceeding from the Benevolence of others who do likewise themselves stand in need of the like means for their Happiness and Safety From whence we easily perceive that these mutual Helps and Assistances of Men towards each other are highly beneficial to all of them and answer that Concourse of Natural Bodies and that Cession or giving place to each other which is so necessary for the performance of their motions So that from this necessity of these mutual helps it as necessarily follows that he who would consult his own Happiness and Preservation should procure as far as he is able the Good will and Assistance of others since he cannot but be sensible that he is able to afford and perform to others divers like Offices of kindness and so is able to conspire with the whole System of Rational Beings towards the same End viz. the Common Good of Rational Beings and that on the contrary the weak and inconsiderable forces of any one Man are not sufficient to compel so many others each of them equal if not Superiour to himself both in Wit and Power to yield him their help and assistance to their own prejudice whether they will or no which would prove as impossible as that a hundred pound weight placed in one Scale of a Balance should bear down several other hundred weights put on the opposite Scale So likewise the force and cunning of any single Person is of no sufficient Power or Force against the several Necessities Counsels and Endeavours of innumerable others towards their own and the Common Good without any consideration of his particular Happiness alone Therefore it is manifest from this natural Balance of Humane Powers that men may be more certainly induced by our Benevolence or Endeavour of the Common Good to yield us those things and assistances we stand in need of than by using force or deceit which Mr. H. supposes even the Good and Vertuous may lawfully exercise in the State of Nature as the only natural means of Self-preservation in his Imaginary State of Nature § 6. So that from these Natural Observations concerning all the means necessary to the Conservation of the Corporeal Universe and of the several sorts of Beings therein contained we may draw these conclusions 1. That all things are so disposed that not the least quantity of matter and motion can ever be lost but the same Species of Animals are still continued and are rather encreased than lessened notwithstanding all the opposition of the cruel Passions and unruly Appetites of some other Animals so that in this perpetuity of matter and motion by a continual succession of things the Natural Good or Conservation of the Corporeal Universe consists and towards which it is carried according to the immutable Laws of motion nor can there be any sufficient reason given why the Conservation of Mankind may not be looked upon as established by as certain and natural a Power of Causes as the Successive Generations of any other Creatures since they depend alike upon the lasting Nature of the Corporeal Universe and agree in all the Essentials of Animals And certainly the Addition of a Rational Soul to our Bodies does very often put us in a better Condition than that of Brutes but can never make us in a worse which will be evident to any Man that considers the benefits which accrew to our Bodies from the Government of our Reason and which do abundantly recompense some inconveniencies which may happen to them from the errours of our minds Nay it is most certain that its errours concerning Food Pleasure and other things which concern the Preservation of our Bodies proceed from the Soul 's yielding against the Admonitions of Reason to Carnal Appetites and Corporeal or Animal Passions 2. That the matter and motion of all Bodies as also of Men considered only as such do Mechanically or whether they will or no promote the motion of that of the Corporeal Universe since the motion of all particular Bodies is determined by the general motion of the whole System In short our Judgments concerning the necessary means of the Happiness of Mankind may be convinced from these Natural causes operating after the same manner and by the same Natural Laws by which the Corporeal Universe is preserved since they consist in these two Rules 1. That the endeavours of particular Persons towards their own Preservation are as plainly necessary for the Conservation of the whole Species of Mankind as the mechanick motions of particular Bodies are to the general motion of the whole Corporeal System 2. That the Powers of particular Persons by which they defend themselves against the force of others should be so equally Balanced as that like the motion of other Bodies none of them should be destroyed or lost to the Prejudice or Detriment of the whole Somewhat like which is seen in all the motions of the Corporeal System of the World which proceed from its Plenitude and the mutual Contact of Bodies and so extend themselves through the whole mass of matter but it is the proper Talent of Humane Reason and Understanding to observe that each Man 's particular Happiness does depend upon the voluntary Actions of other Rationals after a much nobler manner even when they are far distant and can therefore take care that all Humane Actions may in like manner conduce to the Common Good of Rational Agents as the motions of all Bodies do to the Conservation of the whole Corporeal System which will be truly performed if in all voluntary Actions which respect others those two Rules
it is evident That their Off-spring can neither be generated or preserved unless those of different Sexes do for some time maintain Peace and a Co-habitation with each other which in many others of them continues much longer than the bare time of Generation viz. for the whole season of Coupling and Breeding up of their young ones and in divers others as Doves Pigeons c. This Affection continues like Marriage as long as their Lives And that Creatures are excited to generate their like from the same natural Causes for which their own Preservation is procured appears from this anatomical Observation that part of the same nutritious Juice passes into the Nourishment of the Body and the rest to the Propagation of Seed and the whole Circulation of the Blood with the Causes that produce and promote it as the muscular force of the Heart and that strange and wonderful Artifice of the Valves in the Veins do by one and the same Action serve for the particular Nutrition of the Animal and also perform the more publick Duty of Propagation of the Species whilst it does at the same time send down part of that matter to the Spermatick Vessels out of which the Seed is produced § 13. But leaving the nicer Disquisition of these anatomical Observations to Naturalists and Physicians I shall only add this one Observation That it is evident that all Animals are by these means impelled to the Love of those of a different Sex and also of their own Off-spring and so are brought to impart some of that Self-love with which they are first endued to others of their own kind from an irresistible instinct of Nature And hence it is truly observed of Men That after they are married and have got Children they are more prone to and sollicitous after Peace than before but that this desire of Propagation disposes Men to a greater Affection towards those of the Female Sex is so evident that it needs no proof But since Mr. H. and others of his Opinion do grant these Observations concerning the natural Propensions of Creatures to be true but are wont to evade them by affirming That they only proceed from the sole Love of their own Pleasure and Satisfaction and that all the Actions proceeding from thence tend to no higher end than the Love and Preservation of themselves as I do not in this part of the Discourse intend to dispute so have I not omitted to answer this Objection in the last Chapter which is designed on purpose for answering all those Objections that can well be made against our Definition of the Law of Nature § 14. The last general Observation to be drawn from the Nature of Living Creatures may be taken from that Sweetness and Pleasure they take and enjoy in those Actions and Passions that tend to the Common Good of their own Kind since it is very well known to Naturalists that in those sweeter Passions of Love Desire Hope Joy especially when employed about any great Good towards others the vital Motions of the Blood and Heart are then highly helped and promoted So that the Veins and Arteries are filled with a milder and nobler Juice whilst brisker and more active Spirits are thereby generated and the Circulation of the Blood and consequently all the other animal Functions are more easily and nimbly performed So that by those very Affections by which they do good to Animals of their own Kind they themselves are also satisfied and delighted and as far as they feel this naturally rooted in their very Natures they must needs incline to these Affections so highly conducing to their own Happiness and Preservation whereas on the contrary in Hatred Envy Fear and that Sadness and Ill-humour which necessarily springs from those sour and immoderate Passions the Circulation of the Blood is obstructed and the Heart rendred more heavy and unapt to motion So that it thereby expels the Blood with greater difficulty in its Systole from whence proceeds meagerness and paleness of the Countenance with innumerable Inconveniencies to the whole Oeconomy of the Body but chiefly in the Functions of the Brain and Nerves such as are those Diseases which are attributed to the Spleen deep Melancholy and Discontent But these things being rather of a medicinal Consideration I shall but only just mention them though the Writings of Physicians may yield us divers Examples of such who have hastened their own Fate through immoderate Envy and Regret that they could not satisfie their Malice or Revenge of which I may chance to give you a taste when I come to consider the Sanction of the Law of Nature by Punishments proceeding from the undue and immoderate exercise of those Passions § 15. But as Mr. H. and his Disciples cannot deny these Natural Propensions in Brute Creatures towards mutual Concord so they have no other way to evade these Instances but by supposing some things in Man's Nature that render him worse Natur'd and more unmanageable than Bears Wolves c. That so being naturally in a perpetual state of War they can no way be kept from destroying each other but by some Common Supreme Power set over them to keep them all in awe which Arguments and the Answers to them since by their length they would too much perplex the Connexion of this Discourse I shall refer you to the Second part wherein I hope I have made it appear that there is nothing in Man's Nature considered as an Animal that ought to be governed by right Reason and in which alone he excels other Creatures that can lay any necessity upon him of being more fierce and unsociable than Brutes § 16. Having now dispatched these common and easie Observations concerning Man considered as a meer Body and also such as concern his Nature as an Animal tending to prove that the endeavour of the Common Good of his own Species was one great End and Design of God in His Creation I come in the next place to consider those particulars in which the Nature of Man excels that of Brutes and whereby he is rendred much more capable than they of promoting and performing this great End viz. the Common Good of Rational Agents which I shall divide into two Heads either those belonging to the Body or else to the Soul or Mind as to the former though there are divers Anatomical Observations made by curious Anatomists and Learned Physicians concerning the differences between the Constitution of the inward parts or vessels in Men and Brutes yet I shall take notice of no more than what are absolutely necessary to our purpose and which may serve to shew what are the natural Causes of that Excellency and Superiority that is commonly found in Humane Intellects above those of Brutes The first of which Observations may be drawn from the large quantity of brains which is found in Humane Bodies and which bears a much greater proportion in respect of their bulk than in any other Creatures for though the weight
of an ordinary Humane Body does seldom exceed above a fourth part of that of a Horse or Bull yet for the motion and government of so much a smaller Body Nature hath allowed him near double the quantity of brains viz. about the weight of four or five pounds so that there is eight times as much brains appointed for the government of the like bulk in a Man as in an Ox or Horse And though the Carcases of the largest Sheep and Hogs do often weigh near as much as a Humane Body yet their brain is not above an eighth part of the weight in proportion to ours which seems to be thus ordain'd by Nature that by reason of the greater largeness of the Vessels the Animal Spirits should be prepared in greater plenty and also have more room to work and so should become more lively and vigorous in Man than in other Creatures since all the Nerves do either spring from the brain or else from the Spinal Marrow which is continuous and of the same substance with it whence it may follow that this larger quantity and consequently greater strength of brain in a Man above other Creatures was intended to serve him to direct and govern that greater variety of Motions and Actions depending thereupon with a more exact care and deliberation § 17. A second Observation to prove that Man is a Creature ordained by God for a fuller and more constant Association with those of his own Kind which also tends to the promoting of the Common Good of his Species than other Creatures may be taken from the natural Constitution of his Blood and Spermatick Vessels by which his Appetite to Copulation is not confined as in most other Creatures to some certain times but are equally the same at all seasons of the Year from whence proceeds a desire of Marriage or a constant Cohabitation with one or more Women from whence must likewise follow a more constant generation of their Off-spring and a more lasting care of them when generated and brought forth For whereas Brutes quit the care of their Young and drive them away from them as soon as ever they are able to shift for themselves Man alone loves and cherishes his Off-spring and continues his love and care of them as long as they Live and still loves them the more the longer they have continued with them and the more care and pains they have bestowed on their Education and so likewise Man is the only Creature we know of that makes any returns for this care by Acts of Duty and Gratitude towards his Parents for as for the Gratitude of Storks to their Sires or Dams when old I look upon it as an old Fable § 18. Lastly I shall consider the wonderful Frame and Structure of the Hand in Man which though I grant it not peculiar to him alone all Creatures of the Ape or Monky kind having their fore-paws very like it and in many Actions using them to the same ends both in feeding themselves and carrying their Young ones yet since we see our Hands were not given us instead of Feet to go upon as in them we may justly conclude that they were Fram'd for some Higher and Nobler Use than our bare Preservation or the hurting or destroying of others Since if God had ordained them only for this end sharp Teeth Claws and Horns would have done much better and would have saved us the trouble of making Swords Spears and such like Instruments not only of self-preservation but destruction whereas we find that by the help of our Hands directed by our reason we are able to do much more than any of those weak silly Animals can do with their Paws since they cannot serve them to make any of those ordinary Instruments or Utensils of Life which even the most Barbarous Nations cannot be without or so much as to administer to each other many of those ordinary helps and assistances which Men by means of their Hands do daily afford each other So that if we consider the Ordinary use of these Members especially in labouring Men and Mechanicks we shall find that they do not only serve for their own Sustenance and Preservation but also for the benefit and maintenance of many others of their own kind who cannot well Subsist without the manual Labour of others And though I grant this noble Instrument the Hand is often abused by wicked and violent Men to make unjust Wars and commits Murders and Robberies and by lesser Thieves to pick Pockets Pilfer c. and that without this they could never commit such Villainies yet doth it not follow that their Hands were bestowed upon them by God for that end Since if He intended the Common Good and Happiness of Mankind as His great end He never could intend that these Instruments should be made use of to a quite contrary design viz. their Ruine and Destruction So that whoever will but strictly consider all this cannot but confess that we are made and ordained to depend upon each others assistance and that Man was Created for a higher purpose than his own single Self-preservation § 19. Which may be farther made out from the natural Constitution of Humane Nature as that no Man is born Self-sufficient or able to procure all things necessary for his bare Subsistence much less for a quiet or pleasant Life but needs the Assistance of others to breed him up whilst an Infant or to tend him when he is sick old or unable to help himself or if it be sometimes possible for a time yet it must be with great hardship and scantiness that any Man 's own single Labour unassisted with the Help of others can provide himself all the Necessaries of Life Whence first arises another necessity of Marriage in the state of Nature which is the Contract of a Man and a Woman to live together for the propagation of their Species and breeding up of their Off-springs and also for mutual Help and a joint Provision of the Necessaries of Life for themselves and them And secondly a necessity of a Man's living in concord or society with all other Men especially those of his own Nation or Commonwealth So that it is evident the chief Happiness and Well-being of Mankind depends upon their mutual administration of these Things as often as need shall require that is upon Acts of the highest Love and Benevolence in order to the Common Good To all which may be added another Observation of the great difference in the Frame of Men's Bodies from those of Brutes in the upright posture of their progressive motion Man alone going upon two Legs whereas most other terrestrial Animals go upon all four whereby Men have the constant use of their Hands both to help and assist themselves and others to a much greater degree and in a much more powerful manner than what Brutes are able to perform But whereas some Atheists have alledged That this Posture proceeds rather from Custom and
Example than Nature I desire them to shew me any Nation in the World so barbarous that doth not go upon two Legs as well as we And though Children 't is true before they can go must crawl yet it is not upon their Hands and Feet but Knees For a Man's Legs as is notorious to Anatomists are so much longer than his Arms and are likewise so set on that they cannot be brought to move in Right-Angles with the Arms or Fore-legs as in Brutes And though I grant that some Beasts as Apes Monkeys and Bears can sometimes go upon their Hind-feet yet is not this constant but as soon as the present Necessity is over they soon return to their natural posture To conclude I think I may leave it to any indifferent Reader to judge whether from all these natural Observations from the Frame of Humane Bodies and the Nature of their Passions it doth not evidently appear That Man's Happiness and Subsistence in this Life was not designed by GOD to depend upon his own particular sensual Pleasure or the meer satisfaction of his present Appetites and Passions restrained to himself without any Consideration of others of his own Kind but was rather intended for the Common Good and Preservation of the whole Species of Mankind § 20. Having now dispatched those natural Observations that may be drawn from the Constitution or Frame of Man's Body in order to the rendring him capable of serving the Common Good in the propagation of his Species I shall proceed to the next Head before laid down viz. those Excellencies or Prerogatives of the Humane Soul or Mind and in which he excels all other Creatures And in the first place Mr. H. very well observes That it is peculiar to the Nature of Man to be inquisitive into the Causes of the Events they see and that upon the sight of any thing that hath a beginning to judge also that it had a Cause which determined the same to begin when it did And also whereas there is no other Felicity amongst Beasts but the enjoying their daily Food Ease and Lust as having little or no foresight of the time to come for want of Observation and Memory of the Order Consequence and Dependance of the Things they see Man alone observes how one Event hath been produced by another and therein remembers the Antecedence and Consequence Whence he certainly must be endued with a larger Capacity for observing the natures of Things without himself and is also able to make more curious and exact Searches into their Causes and Effects than the most sagacious Brutes who though they are endued with some few Appetites or Inclinations towards those Things that are necessary for their Preservation and an Aversion for others that are hurtful to them yet this seems to proceed from some natural instinct or impression stampt by GOD on their very Natures and not from Reason or Deliberation As young Wild-Ducks they say will run away from a Man as soon as they are hatch'd and Chickens know the Kite though they never saw her before and this not from any Experience or Rational Deduction But as for Man it is his Faculty alone to proceed from some known Principles to draw Rational Deductions or Conclusions which were not known before The exercise of which Faculty we call Right Reason or Ratiocination which though I grant is not born with him and so is not a Property belonging to him as a meer Animal since we see Children 'till they come to some Years and Fools and mad Folks act without it so long as they live yet is it not therefore Artificial as some would have it since all Persons of Years of Discretion and who will give themselves leisure to think may attain to a sufficient degree of it for the well-Government of their Actions in order to their own Preservation and the discovering that Duty they owe to GOD and the rest of Mankind Which Notions being peculiar to Man and also common to the greater part of Mankind either from Men's own particular Observations or Rational Deductions or else from the Instructions of others who themselves first found out such Rational Conclusions and taught them to their Children or Scholars with their first Elements of Speech come in process of time having forgot when those early Notions were first instill'd into them to be taken for connate Idea's So that I doubt they have been by too many who have not well considered their Original mistaken for Idea's or Notions impressed by GOD upon their Souls But leaving this of which others have said enough it cannot be denied but that from this Faculty of deducing Effects from their Causes Man hath been always able to find out sufficient Remedies for his own natural Weakness by the Invention of several Arts such as Physick and Chyrurgery for his Preservation and Cure when sick or hurt And also those of a more publick Nature such are the Knowledge of Policies or the well-Government of Common-weals of Navigation Warfare or the Art Military for his Happiness and defence as a Sociable Creature So that though Man is born naked and without those natural defences and Weapons with which divers Brutes are furnished by Nature yet by the power of this Faculty he is able not only much better to secure himself from the violence and injury of the Weather by providing himself with Cloths Houses and Victuals before-hand since Nature hath not made him to live like Beasts upon those Fruits of the Earth which it spontaneously produces but can also tame subdue and kill the strongest fiercest and cunningest Brutes and make them subservient to those Ends and Designs for which he pleases to employ them So likewise from this Faculty of Judging of Consequences from their Antecedents and foreseeing the Probability or Improbability of future Events he thereby distinguishes between real and apparent Goods that is between such Things that may please for the present and do afterwards hurt him and those which though they may seem displeasing for a time yet may after do him a greater Benefit which Principles since they contain Foundations of all Morality and the Laws of Nature which we now treat of it will not be amiss here particularly to set down as the Grounds of what I have to say on this Subject § 21. First It hath been already proved That every Animal is endued with a Natural Principle whereby it is necessarily inclined to promote his own Preservation and Well-being yet not excluding that of others of their own Kind that therefore which most conduces to this end is called a natural Good and on the contrary that which is apt to obstruct and hinder it is evil Among which Goods and Evils there are several kinds or degrees according as Things are endued with more or less fitness or power to promote or hinder this End All which may be reduced to these plain Maxims or Propositions as I have taken them out of Dr. Moor's Enchiridion
Subject of the Law of Nature The first is freedom in Actions or the power of doing or forbearing any Action which does not only consist in indifferent things as when a Man of two different Objects chuses which of them he pleases but is also able to chuse a greater Good before a less and does likewise often preferr though unjustly a present less Good grateful to his Senses before a greater Good approved of by his Reason yet however it cannot be denyed but that Man by the power of his Reason is able to move and excite his Passions of Love and Pity when he sees Objects that require his help and assistance Nay can also by deliberation command and over-rule those domineering Passions of Lust Anger and Revenge c. When they happen to prompt him to Actions that are contrary to his own true Good and that of the rest of Mankind And lastly Man being capable to comprehend all particular goods and to add them together into one Sum viz. the Common and General Good of Rationals as the best and most noble End he can imploy himself about is also able to divert his thoughts from his own private pleasure and profit alone and fix them upon the care of his Relations and Friends or the more publick Good of his Country And though I grant it is difficult exactly to explain after what manner we exert this Faculty since the Nature and Actings of the Rational Soul are very abstruse yet I appeal to every Man 's own Heart whether he does not find in himself not only a Liberty to do or forbear indifferent Actions such as going abroad or staying at home but likewise such as are certainly better by a Rational estimate if he will but give himself time to consider and weigh the Nature and Consequence of them or else to what purpose is he sorry Or why does he repent the having done any foolish wicked or rash Action Since if all Actions were absolutely necessary it were as idle and insignificant as if he should be sorry that he were not made a Prince rather than a private Person or instead of a Prince that he was not an Angel So that certainly God would not then have endued Man with these two Properties peculiar to him viz. That of Conscience or a Reflection upon the Good or Evil of his own Actions and that of Repentance or Sorrow for having done amiss altogether in vain since both were needless if all Actions were a-like necessitated § 28. But the last and highest Faculty and whereby Man's Nature is chiefly distinguished from that of Brutes is when by the force of his Reason acting by the method and means here describ'd he becomes sensible of the existence Providence and other Perfections of the Deity from whence we may inferr that it is highly improbable if not impossible that this most Wise and Powerful Being which we call God should have Ordained any Power or Faculty in Man's Soul to no purpose If therefore He hath Endued Man alone of all his Creatures with the Knowledge of his own Existence and Attributes as far as is necessary for us Finite Creatures to conceive of them since I grant we are not able to comprehend Infinite Perfections it is not likely that God should endue Man alone with this so excellent a Knowledge for so useless an End as bare Speculation which alone is of no great Use or Benefit either to himself or the rest of Mankind whose Good and Happiness God chiefly intended in their Creation So that indeed we cannot apprehend any End more worthy his Divine Wisdom and Goodness in Creating us capable of these Idea's than what is Practical that is as it some way serves to direct our Actions as free and voluntary Agents towards the obtaining our own Good and Happiness Conjoyn'd with that of other Rational Beings Nor can any Actions render us more Happy than those that testifie our high Veneration of God's Infinite Perfections and a deep Sense of his Goodness towards us and whereby we may be disposed to an entire Obedience to his Laws whether Natural or Reveal'd whenever they are made known to us so that if it can be prov'd that these Dictates of right reason called the Laws of Nature derive their Authority from God as a Law-giver and were intended by Him for the Happiness and Preservation of Mankind and as Rules whereby he would have us direct all our Actions to this great End there can be no doubt but we lie under a sufficient Obligation to observe them and to prove this will be the next and greatest part of our task § 29. But before I undertake this it will not be amiss to Treat a little concerning those Attributes of the Deity as far as we can have any Idea's of them since from the consideration of the Nature of things and also of our own Humane Nature we cannot but be carry'd on to consider the Nature of God Himself and if from the Creation of the Universe we cannot but conceive Him of Infinite Power so from His Acting and Ordaining all things for the best and Worthiest End we may likewise affirm Him to be also Infinitely Wise and Good so that His Infinite Power always Acting for the best and wisest Ends is still so limitted by His Infinite Wisdom and Goodness that it cannot Act any thing destructive to the Common Good of Rational Beings of which Himself is the chief and from hence proceeds the certainty of the Law of Nature as also our perpetual Obligation to it For as I will not affirm that God could not have made the World and the Things therein after another manner than He hath done so since He hath made it in the Order we now find it this great Law of Nature of endeavouring and procuring the Common Good of Rational Beings is of the same Duration with that of the Universe it self and so consequently of constant and perpetual Obligation in respect of Himself and all those whom He hath Ordained to be His Subordinate means or Instruments to procure it especially as Men whom He hath made Conscious of our Duty and able to Co-operate with Him for this Great and Excellent End CHAP. III. Of the Law of NATURE and that it is reducible to one single Proposition which is Truly and Properly a LAW as containing all things necessary thereunto § 1. HAving already in the Two former Chapters from the Great Book of Nature that is as well that of things without us as of our selves in particular and of Mankind in general made several Observations for the proving of this Proposition That Man was Ordain'd by God for a Sociable Creature whose Being Preservation and Happiness was to depend upon the Assistance and Good-will of God his Creator as also those of his own kind I come in the next place to shew That every one is oblig'd to a return of the like Benevolence to others for we can by no means be better assured of
the like Good-will from them than by doing them the same good Offices as often as it lies in our Power which we desire they should do for us and that this constitutes the happiest state Men are capable of in this Life viz. Peace and Concord not only among particular Men but also between all Common-wealths and Nations of which the whole body of Mankind consists so that it evidently appears that the true and Natural state of Mankind is That of Peace Love or mutual Benevolence and which indeed would require no other Rewards than what proceeds from it self were Man a Creature always governed by right reason and his own true Good Rewards and Punishments being Ordained for Men as too often govern'd by their Passions and Sensual Appetites and not according to the perfection of their Rational Nature Yet since it pleased God to Create Man a mixt Creature consisting of a Body and a Soul and being too often drawn aside by Passions not directed by right reason and to stand in need of Punishments as well as Rewards to keep him to his duty thence arises a necessity of His dealing with Man as a Legislator and of giving him certain natural Laws or Rules whereby to govern his Actions with certain Penalties and Rewards annext to them which Laws may be very well contracted into one single Proposition or practical Conclusion drawn from the Nature of God our own Nature and that of things without us by the Observations already laid down viz. That God wills or commands that all reasonable Persons should endeavour the Common Good of Rational Beings as the great End for which they were Created and in pursuance of which consists their own true Good or Happiness as in its neglect or violation their greatest Misery § 2. Having given you this summary description of the Laws of Nature as coming from its first Cause God I shall now explain the terms therein contain'd to avoid all Ambiguity and Exception 1 By Wills and Commands I do not mean any Commands by Words that being the method of God's Revealed and not Natural Will and so is not the Subject of this Discourse and therefore I do here only understand that Will or Command of God which is to be learned from the Consideration of his Divine Nature our own and that of all other things consisting not in Words but in Idea's that is true Conclusions drawn from right Reason but that words are not always Essential to a Law or that it cannot be made known to the Subjects without some set form of Speech may appear by Persons born Deaf and Dumb whom we often find to have Notions of a God and a Law of Nature though they were not convey'd in their Minds by Words or Writing for it is sufficient if the Will of the Legislator may be discovered by any other sit means or signs especially when as in this Law we now treat of there are such certain Rewards and Punishments annexed to their Observation or Transgression as may make it their Interest rather to observe than transgress them which is not only visible in Men but Brutes Since we see that by certain Signs imprinted in their Minds by the means of fit Rewards and Corrections Elephants Horses Dogs c. are made Susceptible of Humane Commands and as far as their Natures permit are governable by Laws of our Prescribing For we can shew them by such signs what Actions are to be done or omitted by them and certainly God hath not left us less plain demonstrations of his Will in reference to our Duty towards him from that Knowledge he hath given us of his Existence as also of our own Nature as I shall farther prove in this Discourse By Rational Persons I mean all those though of never so mean a Capacity who are able to make such easie and natural Observations and Conclusions as I have already laid down And therefore Children under the Years of Discretion Idiots and Mad-folks are still to be excepted from this Law who not having the actual use of right reason are not able to draw those Observations and Consequences from the Nature of things as are already laid down and which are necessary for the right understanding thereof By Endeavour I mean all such voluntary Actions which Persons of sound Minds can knowingly and deliberately perform towards the good of others without destroying or hurting their own true Happiness which endeavours though by many unforeseen accidents in the Course of Nature they may be often frustrated and so fail of their intended design yet when we have done the utmost we are able we have sufficiently perform'd our Duty since no Laws require the performance of more than is in our Power to perform By the Common Good of Rational Beings I understand the collective Happiness of the Deity as the head of them and that of all the individual Persons of Mankind existing together with us as the constituent parts or members and in which each Man 's particular Good and Happiness is included since it is impossible to endeavour the Happiness of others as voluntary Agents unless each particular Person whose duty it is so to do have first a right to preserve and make himself happy jointly with others in his Proportion to the whole Body of Mankind By true Good or Happiness I mean all those Goods whether of Body or Mind by which Men may be rendred truly Happy and contented in this Life and in that to come but in which whenever the former stand in Competition with the latter the Goods of the Soul are to be preferred that is the good of our better or Eternal part before that of our Body which is less valuable and temporal But I need add nothing here to prove That God is the Head of all Rational Beings and in what Sence we may be said to procure or endeavour his Good and Happiness since I have spoken so largely of that in the Preface to this Discourse and as for the difference between Natural and Moral good I have said so much concerning it in the Second Part in the Confutation of Mr. H's Sixth Principle that by Nature nothing is Good or Evil that it would be impertinent to repeat it here I shall now prove that this Proposition containing this Description of the Law of Nature is true that is agreeable to the Will of God as far as it is declared to us by what we are able to know of His Divine Nature or can collect from our own and the Natures of all things without us and that all the Moral Duties we owe either to God ourselves or others are contained in or may be reduced to this one Proposition Of our endeavouring the Common Good of Rationals in order to which I shall lay down these Propositions § 3. 1. That God in the first place Wills and Intends His own Glory and Service and in the next the Good and Preservation of all Mankind and of all particular Persons
therein contain'd as far as consists with that frail and Mortal state wherein He hath Created them This Proposition hath already been made out in the First Part of this Discourse wherein I have proved that the Preservation and continuance of all the Species of Creatures and consequently of Mankind as one of them does wholly depend upon God's Providence And as for the Individuals or particular Persons since God's Knowledge is Infinite and extends even to the least things and also that of these Particulars each Species of Creatures is made up and consists It is likewise as evident that God designs their Good and Preservation as well as that of the whole kind though I grant He prefers the Good of the whole Species before that of the Individuals 2. It is the Will of God that all Men of sound Minds should be made conscious of this His intention of the Good and Preservation of Mankind and that they should operate as His Subordinate means or Instruments towards this great End Which I shall prove thus 1. It is evident that all Men of sound Minds have a notion of the Good and Happiness of others as well as of themselves 2dly That this Notion or Idea when truly pursued will at last extend it self to all Mankind for it can never stop short of it as long as it may still proceed farther and find new and fit Objects to work on every Individual Member of Mankind making a part of this Universal Idea 3. That this Notion of endeavouring the Common Good of Rational Beings is not only possible to be performed but is also highly Rational and the greatest and noblest End we can imagine or propose to our selves as comprehending the Good and Happiness of the whole System of Rational Beings and is also true i. e. agreeable with the Divine Intellect which I thus make out these grounds being supposed § 4. First It is certain that all the truths our Minds are endued with or capable of are from God since whatever perfection is found in the effect must needs have been first more eminently in its Cause Therefore if the Knowledge of Truth be a perfection as doubtless it is it must be much more so in God the Original Cause thereof so that if this Idea of the Common Good of Rational Beings as the highest Good we Men are capable of knowing it being a clear and perfect though complext Idea drawn from the Nature of God and all other things and being a Collection of the Good and Happiness of the Deity and of all other Rational Agents it must be true and consequently from God And the Divine Intellect doth as certainly agree with our Idea's concerning it as it doth when we judge that the Base of an Equilateral Triangle is equal to either of the Crura or Legs Therefore this Idea of the Common Good is true and that it is also certain that all Truth is from God as likewise that He hath made us truly to understand that he Wills the Good and Happiness of Mankind it is likewise as certain that he would have us act as Rational Agents conscious of this His great design § 5. The Second Part of this Proposition viz. That God would have us Operate as his Instruments to this End will be likewise as clear when you consider what I have already said That God who hath made nothing in vain would not have endued us with an Idea of this Common Good as the greatest End we can propose our selves for mere Speculation but rather for some practical End in order to our own Good and Happiness with that of others especially since God hath placed it so much in our Power to promote and procure this Common Good since as far as we endeavour the Good and Happiness of particular Persons we do so far contribute our share to that of Mankind considered as one aggregate Body Thus whatsoever does good to any one Member does so far benefit the whole Body and the Good and Happiness of an aggregate Body consisting of divers distinct Members consists in that of each of its parts So then if God intends the End viz. the Common Good of Mankind as I have already proved he designs likewise the means to produce it Nor can there be any better means or fitter Instruments for this End than the joint Endeavours of all Men expressed by all the Acts of Benevolence and Kindness towards each other since it is certain as I said before that Men can contribute more to the Hurt or Benefit of each other than all the rest of the Creatures put together Therefore as God hath designed the End and ordained sufficient means to produce it viz. Men's kind and benevolent Actions so it is as evident That he will make use of Men as the necessary means for this End Tho' I grant he hath ordained us to operate not only as mechanick Causes but rather as free and voluntary Agents to produce it that is as true Subjects to this Law of Nature Thus by the same steps that we arrive at the knowledge of God the Supreme Being we are likewise brought to an acknowledgment of this his great Design of the Common Good of Rational Beings And if from all the wonderful Observations and curious Contrivances observed in this last Chapter drawn from the Nature of Things and Mankind we cannot but conclude That they were so disposed by a most Wise Intelligent Being towards this great End And the very same appearances that discover these Things must likewise declare his Intention of making use of us men as necessary means thereunto § 7. The last Proposition for the proving this Description of the Law of Nature to be true is this That GOD having made this Discovery of his Will unto us we thereupon lie under a sufficient Obligation to observe this great Law of endeavouring this Common Good To prove which I first suppose that Obligation to an Action enjoyned by the natural Law is the necessary and constant effect thereof upon every Person subject to it and that this immediately results from its own Nature this Law being always just and right as the Will of GOD the Legislator is from whence it proceeds So that I understand Obligation to Active Obedience to be the immediate effect of this Law yet that it primarily flows from that Will of GOD which ordained this Law and made Man a Creature subject to it as Heat in us is the immediate Effect or Action of Fire upon us but originally both the Fire and Heat is from the first Cause Now there is no legal Liberty left us in the case of natural Laws to chuse whether we will be obliged to the Actions therein commanded or rather will submit to the Punishment attending the Violation thereof and although our natural Liberty of Will be not destroyed thereby yet we have no Right left us to determine our selves otherwise than natural Law directs because all Moral Truth or Rectitude is comprehended
to reckon beyond their ten Fingers Now setting aside Innate Ideas and Consent of Nations as proofs of the Laws of Nature what other means do there remain but the uncertain Tradition of a God and these Moral Laws from their Parents or Ancestors or else to discover them by Reason and taking observation from the Nature of things according to the method here laid down The former of these if they had ever any such thing it is certain that they have now quite lost so that no Footsteps of it now remains among them And as for the latter these ignorant and barbarous Nations being wholly taken up through the whole course of their lives either in procuring for themselves the common necessaries for life or else in brutish and sensual Lusts and Pleasures it is no wonder that they give themselves no time or opportunity to think of these things nor yet employ their thoughts in considering the cause of their Being or for what end they came into the World So that it is not strange that they should be so little sensible of the Being of a God and what Worship or Duties he requires of them Nor can I give a better account of this ignorance than what you may find in the Author last mentioned who thus concludes his Paragraph against the necessity of Innate Principles already cited in the beginning of this Chapter Had you or I been born says he at the Bay of Soldania possibly our Thoughts and Notions had not exceeded these brutish ones of the Hoteutots that inhabit there And had the Virginian King Apochancana been educated in England he had perhaps been as knowing a Divine and as good a Mathematician as any in it The difference between him and a more improved English-man lying barely in this That the exercise of his Faculties was bounded within the Ways Modes and Notions of his own Countrey and was never directed to any other or farther Enquiries And if he had not any Idea of a God as we have it was only because he pursued not those Thoughts that would certainly have led him to it § 12. Which account tho' it were sufficient alone to take off this difficulty yet I shall farther add That altho it is true the Existence of a God and the Laws of Nature are to be discovered by Natural Reason yet this must be exerted and made use of according to a right Method and is like the Talent in the Gospel either to be infinitely increased or else may be buried without ever being made use of as it ought So that mens not making use of their Reason and those Faculties which God hath given them is no more an Argument against God 's not having given men sufficient Means and Faculties to attain to the knowledge of these things than if a man who by perpetual sitting still should have lost the use of his Legs had reason to find fault with God for not giving him sufficient means of going and helping himself So that it seems evident to me that it is left in most mens power whether they will by a due use of their Reason raise themselves to the highest perfection and happiness that thei human nature is capable of or else by employing their minds about meer sensual objects and carnal enjoyments debase themselves into the state of Brutes For I am satisfied that it is not reasoning about common and outward things that constitutes the only difference between us and them since they reason right about those things that are the objects of their Senses but that it rather consists in the more excellent Faculties of framing Universal Ideas and by a due enquiry into the causes and nature of things of coming to the knowledge of God and of his Will either naturally declared according to the method here laid down or else supernaturally revealed in the Holy Scripture And indeed I think a Dog or a Horse to be a much better Creature than a Man who hath never had or else hath totally extinguished the belief of a God and of his Duty towards him for the one lives according to its nature and those Faculties God hath given it But a Man who wants the knowledge of God and of his duty towards him by neglecting the chief end of his Creation and by giving himself wholly up to the government of his Passions and unreasonable Appetites debases his nature and so becomes by his own fault like a Brute § 13. The last Objection that I can think of and which may be also made by Mr. Hobs's Disciples is That they look upon this endeavour of the Common Good of Mankind as a meer Platonick Idea or Term of Art without any reality in nature to support it Of which opinion Mr. Hobs seems to be when he tells us in his Leviath Book I. chap. 4. That of Names some are proper and singular to ore only thing as Peter John This Man this Tree and some are common to many things as Man Horse Tree every of which though but one name is nevertheless the name of divers particular things in respect of all which together it is called an universal there being nothing in the World universal but Names For the things named are every one of them individual and singular So that on these Principles we can have no knowledge of any common good out of a Commonwealth where it arises merely from Compacts every man being naturally determined to seek his own particular preservation and satisfaction without the least consideration of any thing else § 14. In answer to which Objection I desire you to take notice That if in our Description of the Law of Nature or Explication of it we had any where supposed that in this endeavour of the common Good a Man either could or ought to neglect his own preservation and true happiness there might have been some reason for this Objection But since I have proved that the true good and happiness of every particular person is included in the Common Good of Rationals and depends inseparably upon it though I grant every man 's own happiness and misery is a main motive of his acting to this end and also consists in a right endeavour of it which if it be so this part of the Objection falls of it self unless they will affirm That a Man's self-preservation and happiness only consists in the present satisfaction of his own sensual Appetites and Passions let what will be the consequence which how false and unreasonable a thing it is any rational Man may judge 2dly We have also sufficiently made out that there is an unalterable Common Good and Evil established by God in the nature of things necessary for the preservation or tending to the destruction not only of this or that particular man but for all the men in the World conceived under the collective Idea of Mankind and that in the state of Nature and out of a Civil State or Common-wealth Since by comparing our own particular Natures
Mercy to those of a different Religion from themselves our Saviour teacheth them by that excellent Parable of the Traveller that fell amongst Thieves and was taken up and cured by the merciful Samaritan when the ill-natured Priest and Levite had passed him by saying to the Lawyer who had ask'd Who is my Neighbour Go thy ways and do thou likewise By which he plainly intimates That we ought to do all Acts of Charity and Benevolence to all persons that stand in need of them let their Nation or Religion be never so different from our own So that whosoever will but seriously consider the great end of our Saviour Christ's coming into the World and also the whole scope and design of his Doctrine will find that it was only to procure as well by his Example as Precepts the good and happiness of all Mankind For to what end else did he take upon him the Form of a Servant and endured a poor and miserable life with an ignominious Death but to procure everlasting happiness for all those that should truly believe in him Or to what other end were all those excellent Precepts so often given by Christ and his Apostles of loving one another And therefore St. Paul tells the Romans Chap. 13. v. 8. that he that loveth another hath fulfilled the Law And more fully in the last Chapter to the Galatians v. 14. For the Law is fulfilled in this one word even in this Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thy self And in his First Epistle to the Corinthians Cap. 13. he is very large and particular in setting forth the necessity and exalting the excellency of Charity above all the other Spiritual Graces without which he tells them If he had Faith so as to remove Mountains yet if he had not Charity he were nothing Now what is this Charity but an unfeigned love and good-will to all Mankind Ch. 2.17 And St. Iames tells us That Faith without Works is dead being alone And St. Iohn in his First Epistle makes the love of our Brethren that is of all men the great sign and demonstration of our love to God when he tells them that if a man says I love God and hateth his Brother he is a lyar for he that loveth not his Brother whom he hath seen how can he love God whom he hath not seen And this Commandment we have from him That he who loveth God love his Brother also So that whoever will but consider what hath here been said cannot but acknowledge that this excellent Doctrine of the Gospel concerning the most intense love towards God and the most diffusive Charity towards Men doth not only far exceed all the Precepts of Philosophers but also the Revealed Law of Moses it self Now what can be the design of all these excellent Precepts but by all the Commands and Perswasions imaginable and by all the Promises of the most glorious Rewards and Threatnings of the most terrible and lasting Punishments to advance the Glory of God and to procure the Welfare and Happiness of the whole Race of Mankind § 19. To conclude Though I suppose the Law of Nature if duly observed where it hath pleased God to give men no other knowledge or discovery of his Will may yet give them a rational share of happiness not only in this Life but in that to come yet I hope no indifferent or rational Man but upon due consideration of the lapsed and depraved state of Humane Nature and how prone it is to be carried away by exorbitant Lusts and Passions contrary to the Dictates of right Reason and his own Conscience but must also acknowledge that it was a great demonstration of God's Goodness and Mercy to give us the most Glorious Light of his Gospel and to send his Blessed Son not only to instruct us but also to die for us Which great Mystery that in God's due time and according to his Promise may be speedily revealed to all Mankind we ought daily to make it our hearty Prayers to his Divine Majesty That every Heart may know and every Tongue confess That Iesus is both Lord and Christ who hath brought Life and Immortality to light through the Gospel The End of the First Part. THE HEADS OF THE SECOND PART BEING A Confutation of Mr. H's Principles THE Introduction Containing the Reasons why we have put these Answers to Mr. H's Principles into this Method Sect. 1. The Heads of the First Principle That Man is not a Creature born apt for Society His Reasons for it That a Man is not a Sociable Creature by Nature but Accident for otherwise we should love all men alike All Society proceeds from Self-interest this resolved into mutual Fear or else desire of Glory and Dominion over others Sect. 2. 1. Answer That these words born unapt for Society are equivocal since who doth not know how unapt Children and Fools are to understand the force of Compacts Mr. H. takes his whole measure of Humane Nature from those Passions that precede the use of Reason and Experience which are also natural as he himself confesses in another place Sect. 3. That is natural which every man when of years of Discretion either doth or may attain to Sect. 4. Answer to his 2d Argument concerning Interest Society though desired for a man 's own good or Interest doth not make it for all that less natural Sect. 5. Answer to his Argument from Fear not the cause of Natural but of Civil Society which we are not now treating of Sect. 6. Answer to his Instances from the Company he had kept which being some witty ill-natured men no standard can be taken from thence of the nature of all men Sect. 7. Answer to his Argument concerning Dominion No Man able by his own single Power to force all the rest of Mankind to submit to his Will Sect. 8. Mr. H. himself doth not deny but that men cannot subsist or live without Society though to evade this he consounds Natural with Civil Society the absurdity of which is exposed by shewing it to be besides the Question Sect. 9. The Heads of the Second Principle That all men are by nature equal His Argument proved from Mens mutual will and power of hurting each other and chiefly from the power which all men even the most weak have of taking away each others lives Sect. 1. Answer This equality though granted doth not prove that all men are by nature equal as to all things Sect. 2. The Heads of the Third Principle That there is a mutual will or desire in all men of hurting each other His Argument proposed That tho some men according to a natural Equality will allow to other men the same things as to themselves yet that the major part of men are not so modest but will arrogate to themselves honour above others or else will assault other mens Goods or Persons out of a false esteem of their own Power from thence arises a necessity of others defending
but those in the Second c. In answer to which I grant indeed that particular persons when they joyn with others in any Society or Company do usually consider some peculiar end either of Profit or Pleasure which may thence redound to themselves Yet doth it not therefore follow that Man is not a Creature designed by God for Society or that he is not obliged by the Laws of Nature or right Reason to be friendly and sociable even to those from whom no present advantage can be expected For tho' it be granted that men either from a peculiar agreement of dispositions or that they suppose they can sooner obtain some particular end or advantage in some mens Conversation than others and do therefore prefer such mens Company before others yet does not this prove That man is not naturally a Sociable Creature Since he himself grants That men can neither live comfortably nor be so much as bred up or preserved without the help and society of others Therefore if he is determined to the end viz. happiness and self-preservation he is likewise as necessarily determined to the means viz. Society And his inclination to this or that man's company more than others is no more an Argument against our Natures requiring Society than if I should argue That because I love Mutton better than Veal therefore it is not from my nature but only by accident that I am ordained to preserve my life by eating And as for the instances which he gives to let us see with what intent men meet together from what men do when they are met It is plain that Mr. H. here confounds that natural Society which is absolutely necessary for man's preservation with these particular Clubs or Companies which men keep for their greater pleasure or advantage And though I have already granted that some mens particular profit or pleasure may be promoted or increased by frequenting some mens Companies rather than others as suppose there be a greater agreement of Dispositions or that we have been more used to this or that man's Company by Education or long acquaintance c. And though it be likewise granted that a man does more frequent their Company among whom he finds most honour and profit Since every man may lawfully pursue his own pleasures and advantages if he knows rightly how to judge of it Yet this doth not at all contradict man's sociable nature provided the Common Bonds of Society be not broken and disturbed by any mans more particular Interests or Inclinations and God has not so designed us to good for others as that we should neglect all care of our selves but that this sociableness is therefore to be observed by mankind that by a mutual communication of humane assistances and other natural goods between divers persons we may more conveniently promote our own pleasure or advantage jointly with that of others Since a mutual love and benevolence is to be observed among men though not otherwise related to each other than by the common relation of Humanity and with whom we may preserve a sufficient concord by doing them good rather than hurt whenever it lies in our power And though a man when he joyns himself with some particular Company will in the first place consider his own pleasure or profit before that of his Companions Yet ought he not so to consult his private advantage as that the good of the Civil Society or of Mankind in general be thereby prejudiced by injuring any of its particular Members And a man as well in Natural as Moral and Civil Actions may propose his own pleasure or profit in the first place though he may also intend some higher or nobler end of his thus acting Thus a man who intends to marry may lawfully propose to himself his own pleasure and satisfaction though the great end of Marriage and which he may also chiefly intend be the propagation of Mankind So likewise a Master or Tutor that instructs others may lawfully propose to himself his own profit or advantage thereby though he may also ultimately intend the instruction of his Scholars or Pupils that is the Common Good of Mankind as the great end of his taking that Profession So likewise in Civil Societies or Commonwealths a man may propose to himself his own Security Profit or Honour as a reason why he bestows his time and labour or ventures his life in the service of the Publick And yet he may farther propose to himself the love of his Countrey or the good of the Common-wealth as the great End of his Actions § 6. So that it is to little purpose which Mr. H. alledges That the original of the greatest and most lasting Societies to wit Commonwealths did not proceed from mutual Good-will but mutual Fear the Word Fear being used for any fore-sight or precaution of a future Evil. For we are not here considering the original of Civil Societies but of that natural sociableness among men which we look upon as most necessary and agreeable to the nature of man though some particular men being also sensible how obnoxious they were to the Injuries of those who sought their own pleasure or profit without any consideration of the interest or good of others did to prevent them unite themselves together in that stricter League of Amity called Civil Society So that this Common Amity or Benevolence cannot be omitted to be first supposed even in the very constitution of Common wealths Since those who founded them must have been before united either by some natural relation and a mutual confidence in or benevolence towards each other although perhaps others might afterwards out of fear of their Power or a liking of their Government be compelled or allured to joyn or associate themseves with them § 7. But as for those Instances Mr. H. gives us of those that seek Society only to censure the Lives and Actions of other men thereby to gain Glory to themselves from the Follies or Infirmities of those they converse with Such sort of Conversation consisting for the most part of some idle ill-natured men who count themselves Wits and have little else to do but to speak ill of and censure others does not concern the major part of Mankind who needing each others Society for more necessary occasions have commonly other Business to discourse of when they meet § 8. As for the rest of those things he says That the Necessaries of life may be much better procured by dominion over than by the Society of others that is altogether false and precarious since no man by his own single strength and without the voluntary help or society of others could ever yet subdue and make Slaves of all other men he met with And therefore if any man ever increased his natural power or advantage over others it was not by vertue of his own sole power or strength but by mens deference to his Valour or Vertue when they chose him for their Head or Leader or
things which any silly ill-bred Fellow may happen to do Since such quarrels do not proceed either from Nature or Reason but from foolish Customs and bad Education as appears in making giving the lie an affront which was not so till about an Age agone neither is among other Nations but us Europeans any occasion of a Quarrel Nor yet is there any necessity but that men may and often do differ from each other in opinion and words too without giving one another the lie or any just occasion of offence And therefore these are no sufficient grounds to raise a general Rule of the Natural state of all Mankind from the indiscretion or ill manners of some nay many men § 5. As for his last Reason from the desire of divers men at once to the same thing which cannot be decided without fighting In answer to this I grant this may be true amongst Brutes as also amongst brutish and unreasonable men But since God hath endued men with Reason either to divide the thing if it be capable of division or else to use it by turns where it is not where divers have an equal right in it or else to leave it wholly to the first occupant since every man hath a natural right to what he thus acquires as is fully proved in the precedent discourse Therefore granting mens Lusts and Passions do often encline them to War and contention yet are not they therefore determined or necessitated thereunto seeing God hath given Man Reason to foresee as also to prevent the evils of War and has likewise endued them with as strong Passions as Mr. H. acknowledges to incline them to peace as hath been more fully made out when we speak of the Natural State of Mankind Neither in the state of Nature hath God made so niggardly a distribution of things that no man can desire or make use of any thing necessary for life but presently another must start up to be his competitor for it Since if men lived according to right Reason and the necessities of Nature and still used the Fruits of the whole Earth in Common there would be yet left a sufficient stock to supply the Necessities of them all without coveting the Goods of others or taking away that they are already possessed of PRINCIPLE IV. That Nature hath given to every one a right to all things De Cive C. 1. § 10. § 1. THAT is as he explains it in a meer natural state or before men were obliged to each other by any Compacts it was lawful for every one to do all things whatsoever and against whomsoever it pleased him so to do and to possess use and enjoy all things which he would or could but Since whatsoever things any one would have they either seemed good for himself because he desires them and do either conduce to his own preservation or at least may seem to conduce to it But whether those things do really conduce to this end he supposes he hath in the former Article proved the Person himself to be sole judge So that those must be counted as necessary means which he judges as such And by the 7th Article aforegoing those things are done and enjoyed by the right of Nature which do necessarily conduce to the preservation of his own life and members Whence it follows to have and do all things in the state of Nature is lawful for all men and this is what is commonly said That Nature hath given all things to all men From whence also it is understood that in the state of nature Profit or utility is the measure of Right Which Argument in his Annotations to this Article he thus explains and contracts This is so to be understood that that which anyone may do in a meer natural state is injurious to no man Not that in such a state it is impossible to sin against God or to violate the Laws of Nature but injustice towards men supposes Human Laws which are not in the state of Nature But the truth of the proposition so understood is demonstrated to the mindful Reader in the foregoing Paragraphs But because in some cases the hardness of the Conclusion drives out the memory of the Premises he contracts the Argument and lays it thus to be seen at once By Art the 7th it is proved that every one hath a right of preserving himself and by Art the 8th Therefore the same person hath a right to use all means necessary thereunto But by Art the 9th Those means are necessary which he shall judge to be so Therefore the same person hath a right to have and possess all things which he shall judge necessary for his own preservation Therefore in the judgment of the doer that which is done either by Right or by Injury Therefore it is done by Right because in the state of Nature nothing is injurious I have made bold to add this last Clause from what went before because otherwise the Argument is imperfect Therefore it is evidently true That in a mere natural State every man hath a right to all things § 2. For the destroying of which Principle as also for the answering the Arguments which he brings to support it I shall in the first place observe That the Author's Conclusion which he makes from his Premises in his Annotations viz. That every man hath a right to do and possess all things which himself shall judge necessary for his own preservation is not the same which he draws from the same Premises in the Text viz. That every man hath a right to have and do all things in the state of Nature For indeed from his own Principles no other Conclusion can follow than what he hath now drawn from thence in his Annotation for no man in his right Senses ever yet judged that to have and do all things whatever was absolutely necessary for his preservation only that he had a right indefinitely to as many of them as he should judge necessary for this End 2 dly Neither ought a man in the state of Nature to propose the bare preservation of his own Life and Members as the only end of living since that may be enjoyed by those who are really very miserable as may be observed in such as labour under tedious and constant Infirmities or are condemned to the Mines or Gallies or suffer themselves to be carried away by any domineering or irrational Appetite or Passion And if the preservation of a man's Life and Members were the only ends of life then if another in the state of Nature should threaten to kill or maim him unless he would deny or blaspheme God or murther his Father it were upon this Principle lawful nay necessary for him so to do it being the only means by which he could preserve his life and Limbs 3 dly Neither doth any man's rash or false judgment that such a thing is necessary for his own preservation confer on him a right to that thing for then
mean by a natural Good and Evil I shall now give a right notion of a moral Good and how it differs from the former A moral Good is those voluntary Actions and Habits which are conformable to the Law of Nature or Reason considered as given by God as a Law-giver for a Rule of all our Humane or voluntary Actions For there are many natural Goods that conduce to a man's happiness which are not morally good nor are commanded by any Law Such as are quickness of Wit Learning Strength of Mind and Body c. On the other side I suppose that no Action of the Will can be commanded by God and so morally good which doth not by is own nature as well as from the Will of God the Legislator conduce to the happiness of Mankind The not taking notice of which distinction between natural and moral Goods hath been the occasion of another great Error in Mr. H. when he makes that which seems good to every man 's own self to be the only object of his desires as he doth in his De Cive Cap. 1. Art 2. which he likewise more fully expresses in Cap. 3. Artic. 21. Every one is presumed to seek that which is good for himself but that which is just only by accident and for peace sake viz. That which is just he will only have to regard another's good which he supposes no man will seek unless it were for fear of those Evils which proceed from a state of War But all he says only tends to prove that men are so framed that it is repugnant to their Nature and so absolutely impossible for them to mind or desire any thing unless for their own particular worldly profit and glory as he hath laid down in those Principles we have already considered § 8. But I cannot but take notice that Mr. H. himself in his Treatise De Homine published after his De Cive Cap. 12. § 1. seems not at all to approve of this ill humour in men by these words We confess that it may so fall out through the ill use of his free will that a man of a narrow Soul may consider nothing but himself and so may desire nothing but what he judges for his own private advantage And in the same Treatise Cap. 11. § 14. where he doth purposely consider which is the greater or lesser amongst Goods he plainly confesses That it is a greater good which benefits more persons than that which doth good to fewer § 9. But giving him leave to contradict himself as much as he will yet notwithstanding all that he hath said to the contrary I doubt not but all rational and good men are of a more generous Spirit who do not only esteem that to be good which is good for themselves alone but also whatsoever tends to the conservation happiness and perfection of Mankind And whatsover they thus esteem to be good that they will also desire wish for and contribute their utmost endeavour to procure for others as well as themselves Nor do I see any reason to hinder but that whatsoever I find agreeable to any mans Nature I may do my endeavour as far as lies in my power that he may obtain it But this much I must freely confess That if men do not propose to themselves one common End or Effect viz. the common good of Rational Agents whose Causes whether efficient or perfective should be before-hand agreed on to be Good and those that hinder its production Evil the words Good and Evil will always be equivocal various and uncertain being still to be taken in as many different Senses as there are particular Men. So that whatsoever Action or thing is called good by any one man because it serves his turn that other men if it crosses their desires will be sure to call evil which is incongruous to Reason and to the Communication of knowledge among men which is the main end of Speech Whereas if the words Good and Evil are applied to those things which concern the nature of Rational Beings in general they will have a certain and determinate sense and signification which will not only be constantly true and intelligible but prove most useful and profitable to all Mankind and that we are not only capable of understanding but also of contributing our Endeavours for the procuring of this Common Good and are also under a sufficient obligation thereunto is I hope fully made out in the Fourth Chapter of the precedent Discourse where we expresly treat of the Law of Nature and its obligation PRINCIPLE VII That the State of Nature is a State of War § 1. ALL the Principles that Mr. H. hath hitherto laid down have been only in order to the establishing this Darling Principle of the natural state of War But since we have already in our Answer to his former Principles shewn their falshood and absurdity If those Foundations be ill laid the Superstructure must needs be infirm and therefore I shall omit all that he hath in his De Cive inferred from those false Principles and shall only apply my self to what he hath in his 13th Chapter of his Leviathan given us a-new for the proof of this Principle and which doth not depend upon the former For here he derives this natural State of War from Three Principal Causes in the nature of Man First Competition Secondly Diffidence Thirdly Glory The first makes man invade for Gain The second for Safety and the third for Reputation The first use Violence to make themselves Masters of other Mens persons Wives Children and Cattel The second to defend them The third for Trifles as a word a smile a different Opinion and any other sign of undervaluing either directly in their persons or by reflection on their Kindred their Friends their Nation their Profession or their Name Hereby it is manifest That during the time men live without a Common Power to keep them all in awe they are in that condition which is called War as is of every man against every man For War consists not in Battel only or the Act of Fighting but in a tract of time wherein the will to contend by Battel is sufficiently known And therefore the notion of time is to be considered in the nature of War as it is in the nature of Weather For as the nature of Foul-weather lies not in a shower or two of Rain but in an inclination thereto of many days together So the nature of War consists not in actual fighting but in the known disposition thereto during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary All other is Peace § 2. In answer to which I must first take notice That Mr. H. in his Leviathan deduces this Right of War of all men against all from other Principles than he doth in his De Cive Chap. 1. § 12. where from the supposed right of all men to all things he deduces a war of all men against all and which renders it