of the same day after the Sun and in the morning before the Sun may be seen I forbear to bring hither any more appearances but they are the principal from which I think an Argument of greatest moment may be fetcht for this Motion of the Earth when as by this Motion of the Earth they may be so commodiously declared that it should rather be admired if the Earth could not be moved by such evident appearances These are the easier Arguments by which the Copernicans would evince the motion of the Earth which although they be not demonstrative yet they make this hypothesis more probable than that which determines the Heaven to be moved for one of them must needs be admitted The Reasons of â—ome against the moving of the Earth as the Ptolomaians But these Reasons which some men to wit the Ptolomaians alledge to the contrary are easily dissolved which are these First that the Earth is unfitting for motions by reason of its ponderosity Secondly that the parts of the Earth are naturally moved with a strait motion to the Center therefore a circular motion is contrary to the nature thereof Thirdly if the Earth should be moved a stone cast down from a Tower could not fall to the foot thereof Fourthly a bullet shot out of a piece of Ordnance towards the East at some mark it could not come home to it or hit it if the mark with the whole Earth were moved towards the East or at least the hitting the mark should be more swift than if the bullet were shot towards the East Fifthly neither the Towers nor buildings could stand stedfast but would fall by reason of that motion of the Earth neither could men be without giidiness by reason of the whirling about of the Earth Sixthly because we see that the Stars change their place but not the Earth Seventhly because the Earth is in the Center of the World but the Center is not moved Eightly because the holy Scriptures do confirm the stability or stedfastness of the Earth The aforesaid Reasons of the Ptolomaians answered by the Copernicans Yet indeed the Copernicans to these Arguments use to answer after this manner To the first they Answer denying the whole Earth to be heavy for ponderosity is a tendency of the parts to their whole homogeneous of the same kind and such a heaviness is also discovered in the parts of the Sun and Moon and yet notwithstanding neither the Sun nor Moon is said to be heavy To the second they Answer That that right motion of the parts of the Earth not of the whole Earth and the circular motion thereof doth not hinder the strait carrying of those parts which is evidenced by the parts of the Sun and Moon To the third Argument they reply in a threefold manner First that such heavy things are not primarily carried to the Center of the Earth and therefore are born by a very short line to the superficies thereof as Iron tendeth not to the Center of the Loadstone but to the Loadstone Secondly the whole Air cleaveth to the Earth and is moved together with her therefore all such heavy things being thrown together downwards get this circular motion and are moved as it were in a Vessel And Thirdly The Opinion of Gassendus therein Gassendus by frequent experience hath demonstrated that if any thing be cast from a moved body that which is so cast is also moved with that motion of the moved body as for example a stone thrown down from the top of the Mast of a Ship moved most swiftly is nevertheless not left by the Ship but falls down to the foot of the Mast and from the foot of the Mast a bullet being shot perpendicularly out of a hand-Gun falleth again perpendicularly therefore the alledged Objection is nothing worth To the fourth Reason they answer in the same manner as unto the third To the fifth they say That some such thing hath no place because the motion is equal neither doth it dash against another body and the buildings as it were heavy bodies and homogeneous or of like to the Earth are moved as in a Ship for we find in a Ship moved very swiftly or slowly the bodies set upright therein are not overthrown yea Cups and pots full of Wine or other liquor shed nothing thereof at all To the sixth we say That the change of the Stars place is not perceived but we find the change of their situation in respect of our selves but this mutation of position may be observed and be whether we be moved with the Earth or the Stars be moved we being stedfast or also both we and the Stars In the seventh Objection both the major and minor proposition is false or at least doubtful To the eighth they reply First that the holy Scripiure in physical or natural things doth speak according to appearances and the capacity of the Vulgar for example when the Moon with the Sun is called a great light because it was created to give light to the Night Of the Moon whenas indeed the Moon is not great in respect of the Stars and Earth neither hath she any light of her own proper nature nor doth she give light in all Nights to the Earth So the Scripture saith Of the Sun that the Sun goeth to the extreamest part of the Earth and that he returneth to that end again when as notwithstanding there is no such end or furthermost part So in the book of Job a plane and square figure is attributed to the Earth under whom Pillars are set upon which it leaneth which indeed must not at all be so understood as the very Vulgar well know There might more places be alledged hither but these are sufficient For the holy Scriptures were not given to us thereby to play the Philosophers but to practice Piety Secondly certain places of Scripture are wont to be alledged which speak not concerning the immobility thereof but concerning its constancy and durance as that place which we have brought hither out of Job Thus have we briefly declared of what sort the motion may be which the Copernicans ascribe to the Earth of which a more exquisite explication is usually given in Astronomy But that being supposed all those things are to be applied to the Earth which are wont to be considered in a Globe turned round about Of the Axil Poles Periphery Parallels c. of the Globe to wit the Axil about which it is turned is one of the Diameters the Poles are the extremities or two points which are not moved the greater circle or periphery according to which the circumrotation or wheeling about is made and its parallels Now let us see concerning the swiftness of that motion The first motion by which the Earth is turned round about his Axil cannot be seen and considered in the whole Earth at once Of the motion of the Earth its difference swiftness c. but in divers
therefore a round spherical figure is to be assigned to the Earth Because all the appearances as well Celestial as the divers elevation of the Pole the divers altitude of the Sun of that day in divers Countries the reason of the Shadows the difference and increase of the Longest days towards the Pole times of the rising and setting of the Stars c. as Terrestrial as the direction of Navigations the appearing and hiding of Towers and Mountains the distances of Places the Ports Coasts Winds c. are most commodiously declared by that round or spherical form or figure neither can another figure be devised which can perform that as it is manifest by the consideration of divers figures and forms of Bodies And our artificial Terrestrial Globe so justly represents all these things as they are really found to be in the Earth which certainly could not be done if the Earth had any form or figure than that of our artificial Globe And what other form soever you shall chuse there will follow innumerable absurdities For it is manifest that it is not plain by the appearances hither alledged and that it neither can be hollow is clear from this that the Sun and Stars ought first then to appear to the western People than to the Eastern if it were of such a figure as we see the Sun rising first to illuminate the Valleys before it can give light to the averse parts of Mountains CHAP. IV. Concerning the Dimension and Magnitude of the Earth The Opinions of divers Writers concerning the Dimension and Magnitude of the Earth THe Dimension or measuring of the Earth comprehends three principal Heads First the Longitude or length of the Diameter or half Diameter that is of a line from the Superficies to the Center as also of a periphery of the Earth or the Circumference Secondly the magnitude of the Superficies of the whole Earth Thirdly the solidness or corporeal Dimension of the Earth But these things are so contrived together that one of them being known the other two come to our knowledge by Geometrical Instruments because the Earth is a certain Sphere as it is shewed in the second Chapter This property is the most noble and hard to know and hath exercised the most excellent Wits for many Ages insomuch that some Men have written whole Books concerning this matter And therefore I have thought that it would not prove ungrateful to the Students of Geometry if I should fully relate here the History of this Dimension Diogenes Laertius praiseth Anaximander the Milesian the Scholar of Thales Anaximander the Milesian the Scholar of Thales that besides other Astronomical Inventions he first of all others described the circuit or perimeter of both Land and Sea But Anaximander lived about the year 550 before the Birth of Christ The Mathematicians of succeeding Ages seem to have followed his Dimension even until Eratosthenes Aristotle because Authors make mention of none other and therefore I judge that to be the Magnitude assigned by Anaximander which Aristotle hath noted in the end of his second Book de Coelo saying The Mathematicians also which endeavour to measure out the Magnitude of the World report that the Earth is bounded in and girt with four hundred Stadiums By this perimeter it is no difficult matter to assign the half diameter of the Earth according to Anaximander But because we can find nothing noted concerning Anaximanders Invention besides that one place of Diogenes Laertius Eratosthenes his and Eratosthenes his diligence is obscured who next after Anaximander undertook this business with great applause of all men he lived about two hundred years before Christ and as he was most conversant in the rest of the Mathematicks and Dimensions so he is esteemed most accurately to have perfected Gâ—eodaesia or Surveying and this glory is principally ascribed to him But he discovered and delivered The circuit of the Earth that the perimeter or circuit of the Earth is two hundred fifty thousand Stadiums or Furlongs but others two hundred fifty two thousand which Pliny reports to make up three hundred fifteen thousand Roman miles every one of which are thought to be a thousand Paces Eratosthenes had written three Books of Geography Eratosthenes which by reason of the injury of time are now not to be found Strabo Strabo the famous Geographer relateth the Contents and Arguments of each Book Cleomedes and Cleomedes hath noted up his manner which Eratosthenes used for the discovery of the Circuit of the Earth in which what can be wanted we will hereafter declare For indeed Eratosthenes his measuring forth the Earth was by many Mathematicians especially Hipparchus a hundred years after Eratosthenes judged to swerve from the truth although there is nothing written touching Eratosthenes his Dimension or measuring forth the Earth but that he added twenty five thousand stadiums to the perimeter Possidonius But Posidonius being not only a most knowing Astronomer and Practioner but also in every part of Philosophy most expert did next after Eratosthenes enter upon this Doctrine a little before the birth of Christ to wit in the time of Cicero and Pompey This man by his Dimensions found the circumference of the Earth to be two hundred forty thousand stadiums Cleomedes as Cleomedes hath noted but 180000 stadiums Strabo as Strabo hath delivered whereby ariseth a great doubt concerning the cause of this difference between Cleomedes and Strabo his allowance seeing this of Strabo is the truer although uttered in a few words But Cleomedes his assignation of the same is far from truth although he read and expounded Posidonius his Geodesie to many Concerning his size or manner we will speak hereafter But the Dimension of Eratosthenes was used as yet of many even to Ptolomy's time the year 144 after Christ who used a Perimeter of 180000 stadiums and affirmed it to be more agreeable to truth insomuch that this very Invention was by Theon ascribed to him Theon It is gathered that Marinus a famous Geographer Marinus and by whose Writings Ptolomy was much aided did attempt something in this business as appeared by his Geographical Writings of the same Ptolomy After these times when as the study and prosecution of the Sciences by little and little vanished away in Greece nothing was done in this business neither did the Romans undertake any thing herein But the Arabians and Sarazons having obtained the Empire or glory of other Arts from the Grecians to themselves so likewise they left not this part of the Mathematicks untouched Forasmuch as Snellius relates out of Abelfedea an Arabian Geographer who flourished about the year of Christ 1300 and whose Writings were printed at Rome about the 800 year of the Christian Account Maimon Ring of Arabia studious in Geography in whose days it flourished Maimon King of the Arabians or the Calife of Babylon being studious in the Mathematicks forasmuch as he
of Mars Jupiter Saturn and the fixed Stars is altogether uncertain by reason of the defect of the parallaxy or mutual changing In the Copernicans Hypothesis the distance is varied not only from the motion of the Planets but also from the motion of the Earth it self The Reasons of either Opinion to wit of the Ptolomean and Copernican concerning the place of the Earth are almost the same with them which in the precedent Chapter we have alledged for this disputation hath great affinity with the same For if you ascribe and allow the second motion to the Sun which is called the proper motion not the Sun but the Earth shall be in the midst but if you allow that second Motion to the Earth not the Earth but the Sun shall be in the middle These Arguments following may be said for the Copernicans Opinion The Sun not only the fountain of Light but also the vital Spirit of the whole Universe 1. The Sun is not only the Fountain of Light which as a most clear shining torch illuminates the Earth Moon Venus and without doubt the rest of the Planets but he is the fire-hearth of heat and vital spirit by which this whole Universe seemeth to be cherished and sustained Therefore it is probable that he holdeth the middle place and that these are moved round about him 2. It is more likely that the Earth should be moved about the Sun that together with the rest of the Planets she may receive light and heat from him The Sun a vast body c. 3. The Sun being placed in the midst some cause is rendred why the rest of the Planets and the Earth may be carried round about him to wit because the Sun is a most vast body and endowed with great vertues and forces therefore he rowleth and stirreth up the rest of the Planets to their motion And this Reason especially taketh place if we admit Keplers Hypothesis concerning the motion of the Planets Spots in the Sun 4. The Observations of Galilaeus and Scheiner concerning the spots in the Sun prove that the Sun is moved about his Axil In the same manner therefore the rest of the Planets have their cause of going about neither seems it consistent with reason that any other should be attributed to him 5. If we allow the Earth a place between Mars and Venus and allow the Center to the Sun the motion of every Planet fittingly answers and agrees to the distance from the Center which in the Ptolomaick Supposition is manifest not to be effected by the consideration of the motions of the Sun Venus and Mercury 6. Those Celestial appearances which we have used in the former Chapter for the proving the second Motion of the Earth are also valid and efficacious for this place which I have said must be assigned to the Earth to wit the Retrograde course and station of the Planets and the admirable apparent motions of Venus and Mercury c. For indeed that second motion of the Earth doth before hand suppose this place and placing of the Earth or hath it joyned to it self very nearly But this Argument in my Opinion is the chiefest Yet for the first motion of the Earth nothing can be fetcht by way of Argument for gathering thence the situation of the Earth For the Earth might be in the Center of the World if she were without or wanted the second motion as Origanus also determines 7. So also the variation of the distance of the Planets from the Earth is well declared The Aristotelians and Platonists Arguments about the Earth Yet notwithstanding the Aristotelians and Platonists oppugn the Pythagoreans Opinion with many Arguments and endeavour to challenge the Center of the Earth for a place by these Arguments First heavy things are carried to the Center of the World but the Earth is the heaviest body therefore it takes up that Center Secondly heavy things would go from the Earth towards the Center of the Universe unless this Center were in the Earth Thirdly the Center is the ignoblest place and the Earth also is the vilest part of this Universe therefore it shall have the Center thereof Fourthly if the Earth were without the Center of the World and motion of the Stars then the Stars and Constellations would be seen in some seasons of the year and some days bigger than in others Fifthly neither would the middle part of Heaven always be conspicuous as Taurus rising the Scorpion should set c. Sixthly neither would there be Equinoxes Seventhly neither the Moon rising eclipsed would the Sun set c. Eightly neither would the number of Miles in the Earth equally answer every degree in Heaven The aforesaid Reasons of the Aristotelians refuted by the Copernicans The Copernicans do easily weaken these Reasons of the Aristotelians For the first and second is refell'd because the motion of heavy things is not to the Center of the Vniverse but to the homogeneal body as is proved by the parts of the Moon the Sun and Loadstone The third Reason taketh a false major and minor proposition For the Center is also a noble place and the Earth is not ignoble or base The other Reasons are easily disproved by Diagrams or Descriptions this at least being fore-supposed that the distance of the Earth from the Sun or Center how great soever it be yet if it be compared with the distance of the fixed Stars from the Sun it would be so little as that it would have no proportion to it The distance of the Moon Venus and Mercury from the Earth not so great as of Mars Jupiter and Saturn Moreover the Explication of the Theorem belongeth to this place that the distance of the fixed Stars and superiour Planets Mars Jupiter and Saturn is so great from the Earth that the half Diameter of the Earth hath no proportion to it but the distance of the Moon Venus and Mercury is not so great touching the Sun there is as yet a doubt surely if there be any proportion of the half Diameter of the Earth to the distance of the Earth from the Sun that will be very small But the Theorem is proved thus First the fixed Stars and higher Planets appear to us to rise at the same moment at which they would appear to rise by a right contrived supputation and calculation if we were set in the Center of the Earth Therefore the distance of our place from the Center of the Earth that is the half Diameter bears no proportion to the distance of the fixed Stars Secondly if we take the Meridian or Altitude of a fixed Star or one of the superiour Planets with an Astronomical Instrument we find the same as if we had observed it in the Center of the Earth Therefore the semidiameter of the Earth vanisheth away in respect of that distance Thirdly if there were any proportion then the distance of two Stars would be found to be lesser about the Horizon than
fruitful by its fat water Proposition XXI To explain how Springs or Fountains break forth Of the breaking forth of Springs and Fountains In the fourth Proposition we have shewed whence the water ariseth that floweth from Fountains Now here we demand by what force that water collected in the Earth is thrust forth seeing that it seemeth not possible to be done without a violent removing of the Earth But the causes are various which make way for a Spring in any place 1. If that in any place there be a certain cavity the water distilleth into that without the help of any other cause when that by creeping it cometh into it and then in course of time maketh greater passages for it self until that cavity being filled it floweth out and maketh a River The same also hapneth without a cavity if that the Spring be on the top of a Mountain Also for this reason frequent Springs are found in Woods and shady places For the Rain-water moistneth the Earth and because it is not extracted by the heat of the Sun and an open and free Air by degrees it allureth to it self the hidden water of a future Fountain 2. A way is prepared and the Earth removed by the Spirits which are admixed with the waters yet in the Earth also the rarefaction of water in the Earth by which it requireth the larger place For the Waters whilst that yet they are hidden within the Earth carry many Spirits Also Subterranean fires add not a little to this 3. Oftentimes Fountains are brought to light by showers for showers do render the Pores of the Earth more ample and large when that they conjoyn with the water of the hidden Fountain and so this followeth that by reason of the mutual conjunction and coherency 4. Sometimes Springs are opened by an Earthquake so an Earthquake sent forth the River Ladon 5. Sometimes they are discovered by the Industry of Men by digging the Earth 6. Many Fountains have been discovered by Animals which are wont to dig up the Earth with their Snouts so a Hog first discovered the first Salt Spring in Lunenburgh for when he had rooted up the Earth and made a gutter the water spouted out which filling the gutter the Hog according to their custome lay down in it then when he arose and that his back was dry some discovered a very white colour on him which when they had more accurately contemplated they found it to be white Salt then they went to the Spring and from thence forwards many more were sought and found out from which the City obtaineth almost â—ll its riches and splendor And in Memorial thereof the Hog was quartered and smoak-dried and is kept at this very day in the Palace of Lunenburgh to be seen Proposition XXII A place being given in the Earth to enquire whether a Spring or Well may be made in it See Vitruvius in the Eighth Book of his Architecture See Vitruvius Lib. 8. Cap. 1. Chap. 1. At this day we perform the same by digging up the Earth oftentimes to a great depth and for the most part veins or heads of Springs or Wells or the Wells and Springs themselves are found Proposition XXIII A place being given to make a Spring or Well in it if that it be possible to be made We will alledge the words of Vitruvius as being a man excellently skilled in these affairs See Vitruvius Cap. 7. seeing that we never used our selves to this kind of Exercise In his Seventh Chapter thus he speaketh Reason must not be contemned in digging of Wells but the natural reasons of things are to be considered with sharpness of wit and great prudence by reason that the Earth hath many and various things within it for it is compounded as other things of four Principles and the first is Terrene and hath from the humidity of the water Fountains also heats whence proceed Sulphur Alom Bitumen and gross Spirits of Air which being thick when by the fistulous intervenings of the Earth they come to the place where the Well is dug and find men digging by their natural vapour they stop up the Animal spirits of those that work at their Nostrils so that those that fly not quickly away are there choaked Now to avoid this we must thus act Let a Candle be lighted and let down and if that it continueth burning you may descend without danger but if that the light be extinguished by the force of the Vapors then let Aestuaries be dug on the right and left hand near the Wâ—ll so as by the Nostrils the Spirits will be dissipated When those are so explicated and that you are come to the water let the structure be so senced that the veins be not stopped But if that the places should prove hard or that the veins shall not be altogether at the bottom then assistance must be taken from the coverings of Plaster-works Now this must be observed in Plaster-work that the roughest and purest Sand be gotten that the Cement be broken with a Flint that the most vehement Chalk be mixed with the Mortar so that five parts of Sand answer to two of Chalk or Lime Let the Cement be added to the Mortar of it let the Walls in the depressed trench unto the measure of the future altitude be spaged the Bars being made of Iron The Walls being plaistered let that which is Earthy in the midst be evacuated to the lower measure or libration of the Walls and the bottom being levelled let the Pavement be plaistered with the same Mortar unto the thickness that is appointed Now these places if they shall be made double or treble that they may be transmutated by the percolations of the water will make the use of it far more wholsom for the Mud when that it hath found a place to sink in the water becometh more clear and will keep its tast without any scent if not you must of necessity add Salt and extenuate it Proposition XXIV To prove whether the Water of a Spring be wholsom Of Spring-water whether it be wholsom or not Concerning this Vitruvius thus writeth Their probations must be thus looked after If that they flow and be open before that they begin to be drawn look on them and observe of what membrature they are what Inhabitants dwell about those Fountains whether they be of strong Bodies of good colours not lame blear or sore-eyed if so the Waters are very excellent Also if that a new Spring be dug and the water be put into a Corinthian Vessel or any other kind made of Brass and if it causeth no stain it is then most excellent water Also if that that water be heated and afterwards setled and poured forth and that no Sand or Mud be found in the bottom that Water is also very good Also if that Roots put in that water be quickly boiled they shew the water to be good and wholsom Also that the water in the Fountain be clear
sign which shall be that of the Angle m r T from which if that you take away T r f the refraction m r L demanded is left The Ancient Opticks used another far more intricate but yet a more false method Proposition XXXIV The Altitude and Rule of Refractions of the Air being given to find the refraction at the given apparent altitude of the Star and thence the true Altitude Of Refractions This is the same with the former Because in the former from the given refraction at the given Altitude that rule of Refraction was to be found Examples for Exercise may be taken from the Table laid down before Of the Reflection of Light in the Air. Proposition XXXV The Rays of the Sun and Moon having entred the Air or Atmosphere are not only refracted but are also reflected or repercussed from the particles of the Air as from a rough Looking-glass by reason of the inordinate scituation of the particles Of the Rays of the Sun For except the Rays of the Sun were reflected from the particles to our eyes no part of the Air would appear lucid unto us except that above which the Sun is and so the Sun being in the Oriental part neither the Meridian or Occidental Air would be lucid Therefore some rays being refracted pass through by the Atmosphere some are refracted here and there with many reflections from one particle unto another and so they make the Air luminous or light Proposition XXXVI The reflection of the rays of the Sun from the particles of the Air is the chief cause of the Twilight that is of the light before the rising and after the setting of the Sun Chief cause of Twilight is the reflection of the Rays of the Sun from the particles of the Air. It is manifest from the precedent Proposition for as the Sun being in the East his rays being ejaculated to the West do reflect to our eyes and so make the Occidental part conspicuous so the Sun being beneath the Horizon his rays sent forth into our Air are reflected to our Eyes and to the Occident and from the Occident to our Eyes Proposition XXXVII The beginning of the scituation of the Morning Twilight that is the Oriental Air is illuminated and is so beheld the Sun being depressed about 18 degrees beneath the Horizon and the end of the Evening Twilight that is no more illumination appeareth in the Occidental Air is when the Sun is depressed 18 degrees beneath the Occidental Horizon Of the Morning Twilight This Proposition dependeth on Experience and Observation for if in the Morning season that is after the first and second hour after Midnight we diligently observe our Eyes being turned towards the East when that any bright colour sheweth it self in the Oriental Air about the Horizon and that we know at that time the hour and minute of the hour we may thence know the depression of the Sun beneath the Horizon Now we understand a serene Air of which seeing that there is or may be a great difference thence it cometh to pass that some do extend the Twilight to the twentieth degree of the depression of the Sun beneath the Horizon others unto the sixteenth for by how much the Air is more thick by so much the less will the light of the Twilight be discovered contrary unto what we said may happen in refraction Proposition XXXVIII The Altitude of the Air or matter may be found from the quantity of the Twilight which by reflection createth the light of the Twilight as hitherto they have thought neither doth the beginning of the Twilight arise from a simple but at least from a double reflection See Scheme Let T L h be the Earth g f o m the bound of the Air L the place of the Earth in which the Twilight appeareth or the light in the Horizontal Air f the incident Solary ray f g s. Therefore Mathematicians that have hitherto written concerning Twilights say that the ray incident on f which maketh the reflection f L to come from the very Sun S and because that no ray can come from the Sun to f so long as the Sun is beneath the Tangent f h s for Example in S then its ray may come to f first or because that they will have reflection to be made from f as from an hollow Looking-glass therefore T f h ought to be equal to the Angle T f L wherefore because that the Sun is found depressed 18 degrees beneath the Horizon therefore the Angle n f s shall be found 18 degrees and L f h 162 and T f h or T f L 81 degrees and L T f 9 deg whence T f is found about 874 German miles and the altitude of the Air 11 miles as Clavius and Nonius make it Alhacen and Vitellio make it 13 miles This so great an altitude of the Air must in no sort be granted when that other Phaenomenons do repugn Now that it is found so great according to that method that happeneth from a false hypothesis that they assume viz. the ray g h f which maketh the reflected f L to come from the very Sun for this is false because that it cometh by reflection from another ray for Example g L. Now that to make the small light in f it is not necessary that the ray f g should come from the vâ—ry Sun but another reflected ray may do the same is proved from thence that in the Occidental Air we behold the light before the rising of the Sun when yet it is certain that no direct ray then cometh from the Sun S to the Occidental Air m but from another point of the Air for Example from f and o and so the reflected ray L m proceedeth from the incident ray f m which very f m is reflected from the incident g f and this g f from another g L which perchance also cometh from another Secondly that also is worthy of note That they have determined that reflection is caused from the Air as from an hollow Looking-glass the Center of whose cavity is T viz. the same with that of the Earth for this also is false for the rays are reflected from the particles of the Air no regard being had to the Center of the Earth but according to the superficies of those particles this is manifest from the ray L m which slideth from the Occidental Air m to T for if that it came from M as from the hollow-glass of the Center T its incident ought to come from the quarter x but now it cometh from o or between f and o therefore the ray L m is so reflected from the particle m as the figure of it required And there are in the Air particles of a most different figure and therefore it is no wonder if that divers reflections are here and there caused into all quarters Proposition XXXIX It being supposed that the light of the Twilight is not generated by a
great concernment yet it is better to begin from the Aequator that all the places may lie in some Climate Proposition XV. To shew the use of the Table of the Climates 1. The Latitude of some place or Elevation of the Pole being given to know the quantity of the Longest day in that place and the Climate in which it lieth Let the given Elevation of the Pole be sought in the Table and on the opposite Region we shall find both the quantity of the Longest day as also the Climate and the Parallel If that the given Elevation cannot be found in the Table then take that Elevation which is less near or the like which is found in the Table From the Longitude of the Longest day of any place to know the Latude of the place and the Parallel and Climate 2. The Longitude of the Longest day of any place being given which any person hath observed or received by relation to know from thence the Latitude of that place the Parallel and the Climate in which that place lieth Enter the Table with the Latitude given and you shall see on the opposite Region both the Latitude and the Place demanded as also the Climate and Parallel 3. A Climate being given to determine the Longitude of the Longest day and the Elevation of the Pole This is facil from the very sight of the Table CHAP. XXVI Of the Light Heat Cold Rains in the diverse parts of the Earth or Zones and other properties of the Zones Proposition I. These Causes are efficacious to generate and procure Light Heat Cold and Rain with other Meteors in the places of the Earth and the vicine Air. Of the causes of Heat 1. THe more or less or no obliquity of the Rays of the Sun coming to or emitted on any place For the Rays falling perpendicular on any place cause great heat and the other Rays sliding obliquely have for that very reason a less power of heating by how much the obliquity of them is the greater that is by how much the more they decline from the perpendicular Ray. 2. The diurnal stay of the Sun above the Horizon of the place For the same heat maketh more hot and changeth the Air in a longer time than in a shorter 3. The depression of the Sun beneath the Horizon being more or less in the Night season For this difference of depression causeth that either more or less Light is perceived in the Air also more or less Heat Rain thick Clouds Hitherto belongeth the Twilight 4. The more or less Elevation of the Moon above the Horizon the more or less depression of the same beneath the Horizon the more or less Diurnal stay of the same above the Horizon The Causes are the same with those alledged in the three foregoing Paragraphs The Planets and fixed Stars raise Vapours c. in the Air. 5. The same may be said of fixed Stars especially of those more noted ones and of the five other Planets Saturn Jupiter Mars Venus and Mercury For they generate some light and heat in the Air although it be but little and change the Air divers ways and raise Vapours if that we may credit Astronomers 6. The propriety or species of the Earth of every place For where the Earth is more stony and rocky there for the most part it is more Cold than where it is sulphureous and fat and here again it is more fertilâ— Where there is much Sand and no Rivers there is greater Heat Fumes and Mists proceed from Lakes 7. Lakes or the Sea adjacent From thence also Fumes and Mists are raised more moist and frequent in the Air and the Rays are less powerfully reflected from the Sea than from the Earth 8. The scituation of Places For the Sun acteth otherwise on Mountains and Mountainous places than on Valleys and Plains Moreover Mountains hinder the free access of the Rays of the Sun to the subject places for to them the Vapours of the Air are in some sort attracted See Chap. 20. whence the Mountains change the seasons of the adjacent places as Heat Rain and the like For these would be otherwise in the Subject places if that the Mountains were absent The Winds cause difference in the weather 9. The Winds especially the general So the Etesian winds temperate and allay the Canicular heat A general Wind in the Torrid Zone especially the Subsolan winds in Brasilia render the Heat temperate when in Africa which is Occidental the Heat is vehement because these places feel not so general a Wind. The Northern winds are cold and dry the Southern warm and moist in our places 10. Clouds Rain and Fogs take away and diminish light and heat I suppose that there are not many causes of this variety in light and heat c. which is observed in divers places of the Earth or also in the same places but yet in a different time or season Proposition II. How are the Seasons of the year Spring Summer Autumn and Winter to be defined The four Seasons of the Year Although in Sciences we ought not to contend and dispute concerning Definitions yet because certain Homonymes or Likenesses do here occur without the Explication of which there will arise much confusion in the following Doctrine therefore I will so propose this Question that you may the more cautiously avoid this Homonyme that they may not be deceived and intangled by the same The Question comprehendeth two difficulties first Whether these Seasons ought to be defined from the entrance of the Sun and his stay in certain sings of the Ecliptick and Zodiack According to Astronomers and Astrologers For so Astronomers and Astrologers commonly do saying that that is the Spring whilst the Sun moveth from the first degree of Aries to the first of Cancer that is Summer whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Cancer to the first of Libra that is Autumn whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Libra to the first of Capricorn and that is Winter whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Capricorn to the first degree of Aries Now it is manifest that these Definitions are not general and agreeable to all places because they are only of force in the Northern places scituated from the Aequator towards the Pole Artick and not in the Southern so that for these Definitions the same persons bring Definitions contrary to the former saying that in these places the Spring beginneth from the first degree of Libra proceeding unto the first of Capricorn the Summer from the first of Capricorn to the first of Aries the Autumn from the first of Aries to the first of Cancer and the Winter from the first of Cancer to the first of Libra But from thence it would follow that those Seasons cannot possibly be defined which is false and Generals ought to be defined by Generals Secondly Definitions so made cannot have place in the places of the Torrid Zone
distance from the place assumed the Spring when he goeth from a point of moderate distance towards the very Vertex of the Pole or to the point of the Ecliptick which is Vertical to the place or to the Parallel of the place the Summer where the Sun goeth from this other point of middle distance to a point of greatest distance that is the first degree of Capricorn or Cancer 2. In the places of the Aequator it self the Sun no day of the year remaineth above the Horizon more or less hours than twelve and so many beneath the Horizon In other places of the Torrid Zone one hour or an hour and an half at the most viz. in the extream places of this Zone about the Tropicks of Cancer and Capricorn when the day is at the longest the Sun remaineth above the Horizon twelve hours and in the shortest day about eleven hours and in the intermedial days that time of the stay of the Sum above and beneath the Horizon doth not much differ from twelve hours And therefore this is the cause that the nights are not without cold and the heat of the day continueth not long about the eveningtide 3. In the night time the Sun is profoundly depressed beneath the Horizon for that he illustrateth the Air with none of his rayes nay not reflex This is the cause that most dark nights are there and the cold of the night is augmented the Air is condensed and contracteth it self and being cold it descends towards the earth by its own ponderosity Moreover in a very short time about the space of half an hour before the rising of the Sun and after his setting those places have the light and heat of the Twilight 4 The Moon almost after the same manner as the Sun ascends directly from the Horizon towards the Meridian of those places yet a little more obliquely because it departeth from the Ecliptick and therefore towards the Torrid Zone about five degrees and it remaineth after the same manner as the Sun a little above twelve hours above the Horizon and is depressed beneath it almost so many hours and that profoundly as we have spoken of the Sun Therefore with her direct rayes or those near to the perpendicular she will augment the warmness of the night especially when she is Vertical to any place and diminish it by her recess but by reason of her short stay above the Horizon the effect of it is little discerned in any place except when it is Vertical to it 5. All the Stars arise and set in places nigh the Aequator but those Stars which are near the Pole in places more remote from the Aequator do not arise and those are but very few and therefore they can cause little heat and light and that also insensible in the Air. 6. In many places of the Torrid Zone as in India and its Isles in the Tongue of Africa and in Mexico the earth is Sulphureous which sendeth forth more calid vapours whence it communicateth a certain heat to the Air and a peculiar property In some places it is sandy as in the North part of Africa lying in the Torrid Zone in part of Lybia and the Land of the Negroes in many places of Arabia in Peru and in the places between Peru and Brazilia whence in these places a very great heat is raised by the Sun because the particles of the Sand do very long retain the heat received from the Sun and soon communicate the same to the vicine Air. In other places the Rivers are many and in those Sandy ones few there are many in Abyssine in Guiney Congo India and in Brazilia hence humid vapours are raised which do very much blunt the force of the Suns rayes and render his heat more tolerable 7. The most places of the Torrid Zone have the Sea adjacent as India and its Isles the Tongue of Africa Guiney Brazilia Peru Mexico some places of the Torrid Zone are Mediterranean as the more inward Africa the Regions between Peru and Brazilia whence it cometh to pass that in those places the heat and drought is greater and in some or most of them the Air is more moist and less fervent then can be caused by the Sun except other causes happen 8. Most of the Regions of the Torrid Zone seeing that they are almost encompassed by the Sea have in the middle places more or lesser ridges of exceeding high Mountains as India and its Isles the Tongue of Africa and Peru These rows of Mountains do very much vary the light heat and rayes of those places somewhere they hinder the Oriental rayes of the Sun otherwhere the Occidental Moreover the humid vapours condensed in the Air are moved to the Vertices of these Mountains as we have shewed in the twentieth Chapter whence rains and clouds proceed by which the heat and light of the Sun is very much obstructed and the Celestial cause of the Seasons is disturbed There are few of the places of the Torrid Zone which want those ridges as the inward Africa Mexico and the like 9. The effects of the Winds in the Torrid Zone are various and notable for a general wind blowing from the side Plagas of the East or from the East continually towards the West refrigerateth the Maritim places which regard the East as Brazilia the Oriental Coast of Africa but not so to those towards the West as Guiney Congo Angola and the Coasts of Peru. Some winds are appropriated as the South in Peru which winds dispel vapours towards the Plaga in which they blow Some are fixed winds of which we have largely treated in the one and twentieth Chapter Now these winds do very much disturb the Celestial cause of the Seasons for they are almost as equally constant and observe order as the motions of the Heaven it self They bring down the Air compel the vapours towards the tops of the Mountains and by other Modes alter the Seasons Ten Anniversary rains are in many places of the Torrid Zone and take away the Celestial cause seeing that they are as equally constant as the motion of the Sun it self For those err who suppose that this our Sublunary Orb observeth all with inconstancy and without order and that the Celestial only have a constant motion Seeing that the causes hitherto spoken of are so various to be able to cause the heat and the properties of the Seasons and in one place some are from other causes in another others are of force or concur in divers Seasons of the year or mutually impede one another hence we discover why the cause and condition of the Seasons of the Torrid Zone is so various Proposition XI How the Spring Summer Autumn and Winter Terrestrial do behave themselves and in what Months of the year they commence in the divers places of the Torrid Zone Of the beginning of the Seasons in places in the Torrid Zone We have said before and especially in the second Proposition that
the Air than it would do without this refraction We shall anon alledge an example of the appearancy of the Sun proceeding from refraction 4. The Full Moon and near the Full remaineth above the Horizon for many days when the Sun is depressed beneath it viz. for so many more days by how much that place is more near the Pole Yet it is not so highly elevated above the Horizon as to cause any warmness But the Full Moon in those months in which the Sun remaineth above the Horizon in an whole revolution the Full Moon is never above the Horizon The Planets not always the same above Horizon 5. The Fixed Stars are almost the same always above the Horizon but not the Planets For Saturn remaineth 15 years above the Horizon of the place near the Pole and 15 beneath the same Jupiter 6 years beneath and 6 above the same Horizon Mars 1 year Venus and Mercury about half a year From this cause it is likely that there is great diversity of the motions of the Air and seasons in divers years 6. The Land in most places of the Frigid Zone is Stony Rocky and as hard as Flint in few places Chalky Sulphureous and Fat In these places there is a moderate fertility in the other a sterility 7. Those Regions are incompassed with the Sea but for the Mediterranian we as yet have no certain account 8. Some of the Regions of the Frigid Zone have Mountains of a moderate hight but most want them running on a plain for a long space 9. The cold Winds there frequently blow from the Polary Plaga seldom the East Wind and least of all the West In the cold Artick Plaga the North Winds rage in the Antartick the South 10. Clouds and Rains frequently perplex these Regions From these causes it is not difficult to collect what the condition of the seasons in these Regions are for in the Winter time when the Sun riseth not for whole daies it cannot otherwise be but that for the most part thick Clouds Frost and Cold must render the Land uninhabitable They are not altogether deprived of light for that time for the Moon being above the Horizon for a long time giveth light and the twilight is daily afforded from the Sun to the Vicine Horizon But the Snow the stick close about the Earth which cannot be discussed by the heat of the Sun and therefore hinder the aspect of remote things There is no fertility but all barren and uncultivated for that which some suppose by how much any Region is nearer to the Pole by so much less it feeleth the intenseness of the cold and the Fields are found more fertil seemeth not probable to me when neither in Nova Zembla which is distant 16 degrees from the Pole nor in Spitzbirga which is only 8 degrees distant such a constitution of the Earth is found but a roughness and hardness and almost in the middle of Summer Snows or at least Showers and very cold Winds Neither is their opinion helped by one example observed by Mariners in a certain Region 9 degrees distant from the Pole which most men suppose to be Groenland For in this green Grass is found and an Air more warm than in Nova Zembla as is most certain The only Animals peculiar to these Northern Regions Rhinoceros a kind of Venison is the Rhinoceros and this in the space of a month becometh exceeding fat by feeding on this grass Nevertheless seeing that as yet not many Regions are hitherto found of this temperature in the Frigid Zone it is not expedient for us from this single example to make a general conjecture especially seeing that the cause of this peculiar constitution is manifest for that Land is full of Marshes and Sedgey and the grass by which the Rhinoceros or Dear are tendred so fat is not a kind of Terrestrial Grass but Sedge and Osiers but other Herbs are not there found or any Trees From whence we may gather that that Land containeth some fat and Sulphureous Substance which being mixed which the water produceth such an Oyle and fattening Sedge but that the like Earth is to be found in other parts of the Frigid Zone hath not as yet been observed but rather the contrary Therefore in the Winter in these places is little light but an incredible and great violence of Cold Snow Showers and Polary Winds And this Winter beginneth in the Northern Frigid Zone when the Sun first entreth Capricorn although also the Autumn the Sun going from the 1 degree of Libra to the 1 of Capricorn be little different from this violent Winter The Spring indeed is less infested with this violence of the Air yet it is without Snows Showers and cold Polary Winds Yet the increase of heat in the day or rather the decrease of cold is discovered at that time viz. the Sun going from the 1 degree of Aries to the 1 of Cancer And in this Vernal season or in the latter days of it the Sun continueth above the Horizon in intire revolutions and therefore then there is discovered a moderate heat which yet is not of that force as to melt and dissolve the Snow of all those places into Water much less is it able to melt the Ice whence Marriners report that here is to be found Snow and Ice of a perpetual duration Then the Summer shall be from the going of the Sun from the 1 degree of Cancer to the 1 of Libra in the first part of which the Sun yet remaineth for whole daies above the Horizon and augmenteth the heat by some accession so that June July and August are months of a tolerable Air. In some places among the Mountains the heat of the Sun is intense but the Showers and Clouds do much hinder this benignity of the Sun and especially the most sharp Northern Winds unto which sometimes Snow is adjoyned so that no fruits or Corn can here arrive to any maturity except in some places near the Artick Circle CHAP. XXVII Of the Shadows which the bodies erected in the Earth and illuminated by the Sun do cast and of the division of the Earth arising from thence SEeing that the Shadows in divers places of the Earth which the illuminated bodies of the Sun do cast are carryed into divers places and falling on the Sense have much variety hence it came to pass that men who were ignorant of this cause were struck with an admiration and in respect of the Shadows of the Earth divided the Inhabitants of the Earth as it were into three sorts which division must be applyed to the places of the Earth or to its Superficies So that they termed some Amphiscij others Heteroscij and the rest Periscij The explication of which terms seeing that they contain but small learning we shall say somewhat also concerning Shadows which although they do not pertain to Geography yet by reason of their near affinity they may be proposed in this Chapter Of
the first and opposite Meridian viz. A P and C P the numbers may be ascribed from the Aequator towards P to wit 1 2 3 4 even to 90 so that the Latitude of every one may be conspicuous but at the Parallel 23 deg 30 min. the Tropick of Cancer shall be ascribed at the 66 degree 30 min. the Arctick Circle In the Praxis neither all the Meridians nor all the Parallels must be coloured but only every tenth the rest must be represented with occult or obscure lines After all the Meridians and Parallels are described it is easy to note from the Table of Longitude and Latitude of places the places of the Earth viz. of its Superficies let the Longitude of any place be accounted from the first assumed Meridian in the Aequator so we fall into the Meridian of the place then from the Latitude of the place we choofe a Parallel of the same Latitude and the point where the Meridian cutteth the Parallel is the point which representeth the assumed place of the Earth whose appellation is to be ascribed unto it and so we shall act with the inscription or projecture of any place to be taken until the Maps or Tables be finished Rules to be observed if the Semicircle of the Ecliptick be to be noted If the Semicircle also of the Ecliptick be to be noted in it that must be done before the designation of the places We have said that the Ecliptick maketh the Ecliptick line in projecture therefore its points through which that portion of the Eclipsis must be drawn ought to be found That is taken for the first point or for the intersection of the Ecliptick and the Aequator in which the first Meridian cutteth the Aequator which therefore is noted in the sign of Aries But the last point of this half Eclipsis or the other intersection of the Aequator and the Ecliptick viz. the end of Virgo shall be in 180 the opposite point of the Aequator the intermedial point is that in which the Meridian 90 cutteth the Tropick of Cancer So we have gotten three points through which the portion of the Eclipsis to be described passeth which is lesser than the half Eclipsis which are the points of the 1 deg of Aries Cancer and Libra for finding the other points as the 1 deg of Taurus and 15 the 1 deg and the 15 degrees of Gemini the 1 deg of Leo the 1 deg of Virgo the Declinations of these points must be taken from the Table and the right Ascension which are here ascribed Declination Right Ascension  deg min. deg min.   The 15 of Aries and Virgo 5 56 13 48 166 for the 15 deg of Virgo The 1 of Taurus and Virgo 11 31 27 0 152 for the beginning of Virg. The 15 of Taurus and Leo 16 24 42 0 187 for the 15 deg of Leo. The 1 of Gemini and Leo 20 13 57 0 122 for the beginning of Leo The 15 of Gemini Cancer 22 41 73 0 106 for the 15 deg of Cancer Then where the Meridian 13 deg or 4 deg cutteth the Parallel 5 deg or rather 6 deg that point shall be the 15 deg of Aries also where the Meridian 27 cutteth the Parallel 11 ½ there shall be the 1 deg of Taurus so where the Meridian 42 the Parallel 16 deg where the 15 deg of Taurus and where the Meridian 106 cutteth the Parallel 22 deg 41 min. there shall be the 15 deg of Cancer where the Meridian 122 cutteth the Parallel 20 there shall be the beginning of Leo and so the other Meridians 137 152 166 cut the Parallels 16 11 5 for the 15 deg of Leo in the beginning of Virgo and the 15 of Virgo These points being joyned by a Crooked Line we shall have the portion of the Eclipsis for the Semicircles of the Boreal Ecliptick whose points and degrees are easily noted in every sign if that you take Declinations for every one out of the Tables and Right Ascensions by that Mode by which we have signed the degree the 15 deg of Taurus the 1 deg of Gemini and the like This being done the Composition of this Geographical Map is finished which shall represent the half Superficies of the Earth to wit the part between the Aequator and the Pole Arctick That this Mode is most easy and pleasant will be manifest from the Description and the Praxis will shew it now we shall speak of its use and inconveniences we have said before that three things are required in a Map or that they are made for a threefold end The first of these the Map made by this Method do accurately enough discover Maps are made for a threefold end viz. the Latitude and Longitude of every place because they are made from a Table of Latitudes and Longitudes also they shew the distance of places from the Course or way of the Sun or Zones The second requisite to wit the due proportion of the Magnitude of every Region Maps of this sort do not altogether perform for Regions by how much they are more near the Aequator by so much the more they receive the greater place in this projecture than they ought to have by their own proportion But this difference is small by reason of the great distance of the Eye Few Regions Inhabited about the Pole but many towards the Aequator and this defect is compensated by that Commodity that the places may the better be noted by reason few Regions are inhabited about the Pole but many towards the Aequator But the third end viz. the scituation of one place to another and the distance of places cannot be performed by these Tables because the Lines which note such places in the Maps have another scituation and proportion than in the Earth But if you please to examine the scituation of one place to the scituation of other places and the rising and stay of the Sun above the Horizon of the same the Horizon of that place may be drawn in an Ecliptical form in this Method Let 90 degrees on both sides be reckoned in the Aequator from the Meridian of the given place one of the terms of the Numeration shall one point of the Horizon to be drawn viz. the Oriental point in which the Aequator cutteth the Horizon The other term again shall be the point of the Horizon for the Aequinoctial setting Moreover in the opposite Quadrant of the Meridiah of the place let so many Parallels be accounted from the Pole towards the Aequator as the Parallel of the place is distant from the Aequator The term of the Numeration shall shew the third Point of the Horizon viz the Northern Cardo we shall shew how to find the Point of the South Cardo in that which we shall annex by and by if a greater portion than that of the Hemisphere be to be represented on the Map for it is not to