If Science it is call'd Demonstrative or Apodictical as Cap. 2. Soph. Elench And if Opinion or other Assent besides Science it is called Dialectical c. Ax. 3. So that a Dialectical Syllogism is nothing more than a Syllogism Generating Opinion or any other Assent besides Science Or as Aristotle explains himself Book 1. of his Top. Cap. 1. arguing out of Probables And he is thought the best Dialectick who can best defend his own and dilute or wash away the Opinions of his Adversary c. Ax. 4. And in treating of this sort of Syllogism we are to consider of Questions Propositions and Invention of Arguments Ax. 5. And a Question here may be any thing provided it contradict not Piety good Manners or common Sense 1. § For he that shall call in Question whether God be to be worshipped or Parents Honoured or the Magistrates to be obeyed ought rather to be punished than followed with Dialectical Arguments So he that shaâ—â— doubt whether the Snow be white is not otherwise to be convinc'd than by the Testimony of his outward Sense which he who disbelieves what is iâ— that he will believe c. Ax. 6. So that concerning the Subject of the Dialectical Problemes we need not much to be sollicitous anâ— their Attributes are either of the first or second Notions of which those constitute Real these Notional Problemes c. Ax. 7. A Real is when the Attribute of thâ— Question is real as is a Place a Superficies or so A Notional when a Notional as is Superficies the Gonus of Place or so Because Genus is not a true thing but a second Notion or Logical and only feign in the Mind whereas a Superficies is a true thinâ— and not feign'd in the Mind c. Ax. 8. Real again are either absolute or compared Ax. 9. Absolute that in which sought whether tâ—â— Attribute agrees to the Subject or no. Ax. 10. Compared when two or more Subject being proposed it is asked which the Attribute â—â—grees or disagrees most to or two or more Attributes whether of them agrees more or most to 〈◊〉 Subject c. 1. § For Example When saught whether Glery to be numbered amongst our good things it is an Aâ—solute Probleme when whether Virtue or Glory a most to be desired or Alexander more Valiant or Tâ—â—â—rate a Compared Ax. 11. Problemes Dialectical of what kind soeveâ— may be taken out of all Disciplines whatsoever Ax. 12. Propositions Dialectical are to be true 〈◊〉 least probable not Paradoxal that is against the common or receiv'd Opinion For how shall the Respondent grant that which is against the common or râ—ceiv'd Opinion and which it may be he judges to be false But let us take some Notes from the Learned Hereboord and so end this Chapter Notes and Observations from the Learned Hereboord having Relation to this Chapter 1. A Dialectical Syllogism may also thus be defin'd A Dialectical Syllogism is that which begets Opinion Human Faith or Doubt or any other Assent besides Science or Error which distinguishes it likewise from the Sophistical Syllogism 2. A Syllogism Dialectical is also by another Name called Topical from the Greek Word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Place in Latin Probabilis that is Probable or Contingent because tho' it produces a true yet is it an uncertain and infirm Assent because its Propositions tho' true are yet Contingent as may appear by what is said above 3. When a Paradox is said to be a Probleme true against the common Opinion it is not to be understood only of that of the Unlearned or Vulgar but also of the Multitude of the Lettered who have taken up with Principles Ancient and not so well examined such as that viz. the Earth moves which tho' it be true yet may it be so against the common Opinion and therefore a Paradox 4. A Term of Art signifies no more than this viz. a Term proper to every Art So Metonymy and Synecdoche are Terms of Art viz. Rhetorical Meridian Horizon Zodiac Astronomical Genus and Species Logical c. And this brings us to the next Consideration viz. that CHAP. XVI Of the Invention or finding out of Dialectical Arguments or Topical Places and Rules Ax. 1. NOW to the Invention or finding out of Probable or Dialectical Arguments belong Place and Rule A. 2. A Place is a Seat or certain Common Note by whose Admonition an Argument is found Ax. 3. A Rule a Canon or Proposition containing the Reason of the Consequence of Dialectical Syllogism c. Ax. 4. The Distribution of the Arguments here to be used viz. in Dialectical Disputations is usually into Artificial and Inartificial that is into those of Art to be drawn from the Consideration of the Parts of the Question and Testimonies which are to be found without Now the first Ax. 5. Are to be used for the Confirming or Refelling of all sorts of Problemes alike that is in the same manner being no other than Testimonies But the Artificial not but may be said to be of two sorts viz. those for the Confirming and Refelling of Notional and those for Confirming and Refelling of such as we have call'd real Problemes because concerned about real things Ax. 6. Now those of the first kind viz. for the Confirming and Refelling of Notional Problemes are always taken from the Nature or Propriety of that Affection or 2d Notion concerning which it is query'd in the Probleme 1. § Which or else some Canon belonging to it being placed in the Major an Assumption being made the controverted Affection is prov'd to be in the Subject as because Air is the Subject Matter of Wind we prove it not to be its Genus and because Immortality is the Affection of Life Eternal we prove it not to be its Genus both which Arguments lean upon this Rule viz. That that which is the Subject or Propriety of a thing cannot be its Genus c. given us Cap. 11. of the first Book And so Divines make it appear that good Works are not to be the Cause of our Justification because every cause is before its Effect But good Works are after our Justification and therefore not its Cause And this Argumentation leans upon this Foundation Theoreme 3. Cap. 15. of the first Book viz That every Cause is before it s Caused in Nature and Knowledge c. Such Syllogisms as these Aristotle calls Book 2. Post Cap. 8. Syllogisms Logical that is Notional and the Use of them is very great in all Discipline Ax. 9. Arguments of the other sort viz. for Proving or Refelling of real Problemes are always taken from the Affections belonging to the Nature of the Subject or Predicate as from their Places Ax. 10. Of which those are the best which are taken from the Nature of the Predicate because not sought whether the Subject be but Predicate or whether the Predicate be in the Subject or not c. 1. § Now for Examples of them both suppose any one
That he should be a Man if he has a Rational Soul is requisite and necessary c. Ax. 23. Place from Efficient has two Canons and the first of them is Such as the Cause is such is the Effect c. 1. § And thus God is very good and therefore his Works are so This Canon is deceitful unless cautiously used For first it sails in Causes that are by Accident For neither does it follow that a Son is good because his Father is so nor yet bad For a Son is not produc'd by his Father as he is good or bad but as he is a Man c. And so it fails in Equivocal Causes For it does not follow that the Sun is animated although it animates the World nor that the Whetstone is sharp although it sharpens Iron Lastly in Causes Voluntary when making use of their utmost Endeavours they do something which does not correspond to their Skill or Art As when a Painter paints less elegantly than becomes his Art c. Ax. 24 Secondly That which is the Cause of the Cause is also the Cause of the Caused c. 1. § As Virtue is partly from Nature partly from Institution partly from Custom Virtue is the Cause of civil Happiness And therefore civil Happiness is partly from Nature partly from Institution partly from Custom c. This Canon has Place only in Causes Subordinate of themselves For in Causes Subordinate by Accident it for the most part fails For it does not follow because God is the Cause of our Will and our Will is the Cause of Sin that therefore God is the Cause of Sin c. Ax. 25. Place from the End has this Canon viz. That the End being put there are also put the Means to that End 1. § And so Ovid concludes that Man was made with an upright Countenance because to contemplate the Heavens deeming that to be the End of an upright Figure The Words of the sweet Poet are these Omnia cùm spectent Animalia caetera Terram Os homini sublime dedit Caelùmque tueri Jussit erectos ad sydera tollere Vultus Which admirable Pare-Royal may be rendred in these two sorry Couplets in this manner And whereas other Animals behold With down-cast Looks this Sublunary Mold To Man he gave a stately upright Frame And bad him view those Heav'ns from whence he came Which tho' they fail as to their Versifcation yet may they serve to shew in some measure the Meaning of that memorable Passage of excellent Ovid. Now the Means are often express'd by a Negation of those things which impede the End As the Pupil or Apple of the Eye is to admit all Colours and therefore to be without Colour The Elect must be saved And therefore must not Sin unto Death c. But now tho' the End being put it is necessary that the Means should be so yet that the End not being put they should not be so is not always necessary For it is not necessary that a Man should be destitute of Books and Masters because he is not Learned c. Ax. 26. Now the Place from Caused has four Canons And the first is the Composed posited the Matter and Form must be so too And when that 's taken away the Material Form also must be taken away 1. § And so Plants are living things And therefore they must have a Body and Soul And Stones are not And therefore they must not have a Soul I said Form Material For that the Composed taken away the Matter should be so too Or the Form Immaterial is not necessary For it does not follow that there is no Iron because no Sword or that the Soul of Man is not because he dies c. Ax. 27. Secondly The Effect being posited it follows that either there is a Cause Efficient or else that there has been one 1. § As there is a Building and therefore there is or was an Architect to build it Here are the Footsteps and therefore this Way in all likelihood there has passed some Man c. Ax. 28. Thirdly Such as is the Effect such is the Cause that produc'd it 1. § As this Picture is fine and therefore so must the Artist be that drew it To this are to be added the same Limitations which were added to the first of the Place from Cause Efficient viz the Cautions against Accidentals and Aequivocals because in these Cases this Rule may fail us Ax. 29. Fourthly The Means taken away the End must also be so too 1. § As Stones are not nourished and therefore they do not live Many Men the Gospel will not be Preached to and therefore many Men by means of the Gospel will not be saved c. Ax. 30. The Place from the Subject has this Canon viz. that the Subject being posited the Propriety must also be so too and that taken away the Propriety must also be so too 1. § As Christ is God and therefore he has the Power to forgive Sins The Writings of the Fathers are not the Word of God and therefore they are not of Divine Authority c. Now these Canons without any Limitation are certain and firm Ax. 31. The Place for Adjuncts is of great Extent and has under it Proprieties Objects Signs and Circumstances Now Ax. 32. The Place from Proprieties has two Canons and first that to which the Propriety is given to that also the Subject And that to which the Propriety is not given to that neither the Subject c. 1. § As Christ is Omniscient and therefore he is God Angels fill up no Place and therefore they have not Bodies c. Ax. 33. The Second is that which is said of the Propriety may be also said of the Subject And that which cannot be said of the Propriety that neither of the Subject c. 1. § As a Talkative Person is to be avoided and therefore a Busie-Body or one that is inquisitive into other Peoples Matters A wise Man is not to repose himself upon things of a Fleeting and Transitory Nature and therefore not upon Riches or other Earthly Commodities or Goods c. Ax 34. The Place from Object in the second Place has this Canon viz. That that to which the Object is given to that also the Subject and that to which the Object is not to that neither the Subject c. 1. § As The Doctrine of fallacious Sophisms directs the Mind towards the Knowledge of things and therefore is a Part of Logick Logick has not things necessary for its Object and therefore is not Science c. The Arguments of this Place are very firm if drawn from proper Objects but otherwise only Probable As if one should say thus He talks of Military Affairs and therefore he is a Soldier Of Laws and therefore he is a Lawyer Her Delight is not in Womens Company and therefore she is not a Woman c. Ax. 35. Place from Sign has this Canon viz. Positing the
and one Opposite is sufficient to discern the other by Book 1. An. Cap. 1. Whence they conclude that the Precepts of true Syllogism are enough to detect the Fallacies of the other by And so that this Part of Logick is nothing worth But it is not so For the Right is then the Rule of the Wrong when the wrong as wrong is oppos'd to it And the Knowledge of one Opposite is then sufficient for the Discernment of the other when the opposed as opposed is composed with it But now when the Oblique puts on the Form of the Right or one Opposite that of the other 't is not every sort of Knowledge of the Right that does serve to distinguish the Wrong from it nor the one Opposite to understand the Difference of the other by Now a Fallacious Sophism is not only Vicious but also puts on the Shew of Good And therefore those Precepts of Syllogism which we have already laid down are not sufficient fully to understand the Tricks of Sophisters by Why Because it is not enough to know the Fault of the Fallacious Syllogism but over-and-above we must take off the Appearance of the true and plainly demonstrate from which Box of Fallacies that Varnish was taken whereby the Sophister has set off his Vicious Syllogism And first of those Fallacies which are committed in Word CHAP. XXVI Of Sophisms or Fallacies in Word Ax. 1. SOphisms or Fallacies are either in Words or Things Ax. 2. Of those which are consisting in Words there are six Places viz. Homonymy Amphiboly Composition Division Prosody or Accent with Figure of Speech Ax. 3. A Sophism of Homonymy is that which arises from the Ambiguity of one Word Ax. 4. This Sophism is solved by the Distinction of that doubtful Word 1. § Now in Syllogism there are three Terms Wherefore a Fallacy of Homonymy may three ways happen And first when the Medium's ambiguous As the End of a Thing is its Good Death is the End of Life And therefore Death is the Good of it This Fallacy's solv'd by a Distinction of the Word End For End in the Major is taken for the Cause End in the Minor the Extremity of a Thing Secondly when the Subject is doubtful As Quantity is not a Substance A Body a Quantity And therefore a Body is not a Substance This Fallacy is solv'd by the Distinction of Body For in the Minor's understood a Body Mathematical in the Conclusion Physical In the third Place we lay a Sophism of Homonymy when the Predicate is ambiguous As That which is round has no Beginning nor End The World is round and therefore has no Beginning nor End This Sophism is solved by distinguishing Beginning and End For in the Major are understood Beginning and End of Magnitude in the Conclusion of Time c. 2. Hither may be referr'd those captious Questions Have you left off to commit Adultery Have you found that you never lost c. For whether you affirm or deny you 'll be catch'd by Homonymy For if you say you have left off to commit Adultery you confess that sometimes you have committed it because we have sometime done that which we cease to do But if you say you have not the Sophister will reply then you still continue in it In like manner if you affirm you have that which you have not lost the Sophister'll reply that then you have Horns because you have not lost them And if the Contrary you have not Eyes because you have not lost them Wherefore you are to say that the Word not to leave off is Ambiguous For when one is said to leave off who has done any thing and does it no longer the Word not to leave off may be taken either for not to have done it or for persisting still to do it And therefore he may be said not to have left off both who never did it and who still continues in it Likewise any one may be said not to have lost both that which he never had as Horns and that which he yet has as his Eyes For he is said to have lost who once had a thing and now has it not c. See A. Gel. Lib. 16. Noct. At. C. 2. Ax. 5. Sophism of Amphiboly's that which arises from the Ambiguous Sense of a Speech whose particular Words have no Homonymy by themselves Ax. 6. And this Sophism is solv'd by the Distinction of the Ambiguous Speech 1. § The Fallacy of Amphiboly is laid two Ways First when the very Syntax of the Speech is Ambiguous as Quod quisquam vidit id ipsum vidit that is What any one sees that he would have it self sees Some one sees a Tree and therefore the Tree it self sees This Fallacy's solv'd by the Distinction of the Ambiguous Speech viz. id ipsum vidit For that it self may be either of the Nominative Case and then the Major'll be false or the Accusative and then indeed the Major'll be true But yet thence this Conclusion will not follow viz. And therefore the Tree it self sees Because the Syllogism then would have four Terms Of the same kind likewise is this Catch Those qui sunt sui Magistri that is are their own Masters are at their own Dispose Servants sunt Magistri sui that is are their own Masters And therefore Servants are at their own Dipose For the Ambiguity in the Latin is in the Words Magistri sui their Masters which in the Major are of the Plural and Minor of the Singular Number The like Ambiguity's in these Enunciations viz. Socrus oderunt Nurus Aio te Aeacida Romanos vincere posse c. 2. A Fallacy of Amphiboly's then made when the very kind or Phrase of the Speech begets Ambiguity or Uncertainty of Opinion As He that sends a Book into the Light would have it read of all Men He that throws it into the Fire sends it into the Light And therefore he that throws it into the Fire would have it read of all Men. This Fallacy's solv'd by the Distinction of the Phrase sending into the Light which in the Major Proposition signifies to Publish in the Minor to burn Such is the Caption of those who would infer from hence the Invocation of the Dead because the Patriarch Jacob in blessing his Posterity when speaking of Joseph's Children amongst the rest says thus Gen. 48.16 And my Name shall be call'd upon these Children and the Name of my Fathers Abraham and Isaac For the calling of Jacob's Name upon the Children of Joseph by an Hebrew Idiotism is no more than the calling them Israelites from the Name of Jacob c. Ax 7. A Sophism of Composition is that which arises from a Composition of those things which are to be divided Ax. 8. Of Division on the Contrary from the Division of those things which are to be conjoyned Ax. 9. To be solved by a Distinction of the divers Senses which a Speech has according to the different Composition or Division
Similitude Accidents in the Concrete as Just White c. in which the Subject is as it were the Matter Accident in the Abstract is the Form in which Number also are Works performed by Art Of this Place also are those things in which are distinguished Material and Formal Or in which there is something Analogous to Matter and Form So the Matter of Disciplines are Precepts the Form Method Of Interpretation Voice the Form Signification This whole uses to be call'd Physical because Physicks vindicate to themselves the Consideration of those things which consist of Matter and Form Vulgarly it 's called Essential Ax. 12. An Integral Whole is that which has Part out of Part. 1. § Now Essential Parts are really different for Matter is one thing and Form another But yet one Part is not out of another For Matter permeates Matter and informs all its Parts But Parts Integral because each is endued with his proper Quantity not only differ in themselves but also Site or at least Order So that one is not contained in another For this it is to have Part out of Part. For Example The Parts of the Human Body are Head Breast Belly Limbs of the which one containeth not another So the Parts of Number are divers and one is not contained in another This Whole is termed Mathematical because Quantity is of Mathematical Consideration Vulgarly Integral more properly Integrate Ax. 13. An Integral Whole is either Continued or Discrete Ax. 14. Both are divided into Homogeneal and Heterogenal that is Similar and Dissimilar Ax. 15. Homogeneal is that which has Parts of the same Name and Nature Ax. 16. Heterogeneal of a Diverse 1. § This Distribution of the whole Integral is extant in the First Book of the Hist An. Cap. 1. and Book 2. Of the Parts of An. Cap. 1. and Book 1. Of the Gener. of An. Cap. 1. For Example Inanimate Substances as Water Wine Flesh also Magnitude Motion and Time are Wholes Homogeneal Continual The Bodies of Animate Heterogeneal Continual Numbers as Three Ten are Wholes Homogeneal Discrete An Army Church the World Heterogeneal and of the same Denomination Ax. 17. A Part Heterogeneal is either Principal or less Principal Ax. 18. That 's a Principal by whose Ablation or Taking away the whole is destroyed Ax. 19. The less by whose taking away the Whole is only maimed or mutilated 1. § For Example Hand Brain Heart Liver are Principal Parts of Man because these taken away of Necessity the Man must die Foot Hand Ear c. are less Principal because these being taken away it is not necessary a Man should die Ax. 20. A Whole by Accident is chiefly said Four Ways and first of a Cause of divers Effects secondly an Effect of divers Causes thirdly of a Subject of divers Adjuncts fourthly of an Adjunct of divers Subjects 1. § First a Cause of divers Effects And so a Plant may be said to be a Whole because of Plants some heat others cool c. Secondly an Effect of divers Causes as Mice some of which are said to be generated of the Sun others of Mice c. Thirdly a Subject of divers Adjuncts as Men some of which are said to be bond some free some good some bad c. An Adjunct of divers Subjects as Diseases some of which are said to be of the Mind some the Body these again either of the Brain Eyes Lights c. CHAP. XV. Of Cause and Caused in general Ax. 1. A Cause is that by the Force of which a thing comes to pass COMMENTARY 1. § Principle Element and Cause are Words that are ally'd in Signification Principle is either largely taken or strictly Largely it is defined Book 4. Of the Metaphysicks Cap. 1. to be the First from whence any thing is or exists or is known More strictly Book 4. Of the Physicks Cap. 5. where Principles are defined to be those things which are neither from one another nor others and of and from which are all things In this Sense there are only reckon'd Three viz. Matter Form and Privation The Definition of Element is Extant Book 4. Of the Metaphysicks Cap. 3. and is thus An Element is that our of which any thing at the first is compounded in which it is and which in its own Species is indivisible into any other Species 2. § Cause is here said to be that by which a thing is that is which confers somewhat towards the things Existence and therefore Privation cannot be a Cause because it confers Nothing but only towards its Mutation Ax. 2. A Caused is that which is constituted of its Causes Ax. 3. The Cause is before it s Caused both in Nature and Knowledge 1. § In Nature because the Caused depends upon the Cause Knowledge that is simply and distinct Knowledge which follows the Order of Nature For to us the Cause is more known than it because nearer to the Senses For from the Senses do we derive all our Sensible Knowledge Ax. 4. The Causes are Four viz. Matter Form Efficient and End 1. § This Partition is extant Book 2. Of the Post Cap. 2. Book 2. Of the Physicks Cap. 3. and Book 4. Cap. 2. And is built upon the best Reason For whatever is made is made by another For nothing is made by its self There is therefore an Efficient Cause Nothing finite can produce any thing out of nothing There is therefore Matter out of which things are to be made and Form which is introduc'd upon that Matter when things are made Nothing lastly acts without Design there is therefore an End for whose sake the Cause Efficient acts Ax. 5. The Caused of Matter and Form is call'd the Composed of the Efficient the Effect of the End the Means or Designed and these differ not in Reality but Reason 1 § And since to the Constitution of the Caused Four Causes concur as in all Corporeal things there do it ought not to seem strange that one and the same thing should be called Composed Effect Means c. according as it is compared with divers Causes Ax. 6. In every Genus there is a certain Subordination of Causes Ax. 7. Subordinate are those that depend one upon another 1. § To wit either as to their Existence and so the Son upon the Father the Father upon the Grandfather or Causality and so the Quill upon the Hand in Writing or both and so the Second Causes upon the First or Creatures upon God Ax. 8. Causes likewise are said either to be Essentially or Accidentally subordinated Ax. 9. Essentially are those of which one depends upon another when and in as much as it causes Ax. 10. Accidentally Of which one indeed depends upon another but not when or in as much as it causes 1. § And so a Cause is said to be two Ways subordinated by Accident First when it depends indeed upon a superiour Cause but not when that is when it Causes and this is Effected when it depends upon it
the Effect the less Principal as far as it causes is always worse than or inferiour to the Effect 1. § When we compare the Effect with the Cause we are to consider the Cause as it is such that is according to that Virtue by which it causes when the Virtue of the Cause is such as that it contains in it whatever is in the Effect it is said to be a principal Cause The Effect is said to be contained in the Cause either formally or eminently When formally or the Effect is of the same Nature with the Cause the Cause is said to be univocal and is equal to its Effect as when Heat begets Heat or a Mouse a Mouse When Eminently or the Cause by a Nobler Sort of Virtue produces the Effect it is said to be Aequivocal and is better than its Effect as when Light produces Heat or the Architect an House when neither formally nor eminently it is said to be less Principal and that not so much effects as subserves the Principal in producing the Effect Ax. 22. The less Principal is subdivided into procatarctical Proëgumenal and Instrumental Ax. 23. Procatarctical is that which Extrinsically excites the principal Cause to Action Ax. 24. The Proëgumenal which inwardly disposes or also excites the principal Cause to Action 1. The Cause in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or Procatarctical in Latin may be called Incipiens or Inchoans that is beginning or inchoating And is either Object Occasion Author or Merit So far it may be said to be the Object as it moves or excites the principal Cause to Action Occasion is the Conveniency of Time and Place to act in which it self also has some Force of moving to Action in as much as it removes Impediments to Action Author here is said to be him who proposing Reasons persuades the principal Cause either to or from Action He is also call'd the Moral Cause Merit or Meritorious Cause is that which moves the Agent to a Requital and that either in good or evil things And even all these are without the principal Cause In which they are distinguished from the Proegumenal which consists in the principal Cause it self For Example If any one walking about in the Night should see many precious things in the open House of his Enemy from whom just before he had receiv'd an Injury to be negligently kept and at the Instigation of another should take them away The objective Cause of of this would be the Precious Things themselves exciting the Covetousness of the Thief the Occasion the Darkness of the Night and open House which in no little Measure further him in his Purpose the Author or Moral Cause he who instigated him the Meritorious the Injury received for which the Thief comes to be more prone to steal The Proëgumenal Cause is the proper Avarice of the Thief Farthermore Author or Cause Moral has Place only in voluntary Causes Object Occasion Meritorious and Proëgumental also in others Occasion is sometimes taken for Cause Meritorious As when an Injury committed or done is said to be the Occasion of a Fight or War or Slaughter and in this Sense if feigned is call'd by the Greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and the Latins Pretext The Proëgumenal either disposes only the principal Cause as when the Temperament of the Body is said to be the Cause of Manners or also moves it and spurs it on As when Anger is said to be the Cause of Revenge or Avarice of Theft 2. § The Procatarctical and Proëgumenal Causes are of great Use in Physick For Physicians reduce almost all Diseases to three Causes Procatarctical Proegumenal and Synectical or Containing The Procatarctical with them is the External and Evident Cause The other Two the Internal and hidden Causes The Proëgumenal the Antecedent The Containing the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or that which is connate with and also exists together with the Disease and coheres immediately with it and this with us is the next Cause For Example The Procatarctical Cause of the Fever is either Cold or the Astringent Bathes the Proëgumenal the Skin bound up and Evaporation hindred the Containing the Humour Putrescent and accended Ax. 25. The Instrumental Cause is that which subserves the principal Cause in its Effecting 1. § All Instruments subserve not the Principal in the like Manner For there are some Instruments joyn'd to the principal Cause in acting and there are some in acting separate from them Those are Instruments conjoyn'd of which the principal Cause makes use in the Effection of the thing And these are either Active as the Heat in the Fire or Passive as a Knife a Sword c. Separate Instruments are those which act in the place and stead of the principal Cause So the Ambassadour is the Instrument of the Prince and the Seed seems to many the Instrument of Generation but mistakenly For separate Instruments have no Place in Naturals but Morals And this brings us to the next Maxim viz. Ax. 26. The Essence of Instruments consists in their Fitness for Use 1. § Instruments says Aristotle Book 2. of An. Cap. 4. in Offices and Uses are distinguish'd or convene amongst themselves For every Instrument is that which it is because and so far as it is fit for some certain Use So an Ax is so far an Ax as that in the Quality of its Matter and Form it is fit to cut And the Eye so far an Eye as it is fit to see with For the Eye the Hand and other Organical Parts of Man or Beast when dead are not Eye or Hand unless Homonymously or ambiguously that is doubtfully as Aristotle says Book 4. of the Meteors Cap. 17. Ax. 27. Sixthly Cause Efficient is divided into First and Second Ax. 28. The First is that which depends upon none Ax. 29. The Second which depends upon the First 1. § A Cause is Two Ways said to be First to wit absolutely or in its own Genus That is said to be absolutely on which all things depend both when they are Made Exist and Operate or as they say in Fieri Esse and Operation The Cause absolutely First is only One to wit God For all things depend on God both as to their Making Being and Operating according to that of the Apostle St. Paul Acts 17. In him we live and move and have our Being Furthermore all things are said to depend upon God as they are made or in Fieri as they say by reason of Creation and that either proximately or remotely as they are or in being by reason of Conservation as they operate of his Providence either ordinarily or extraordinarily c. 2. § That Cause is said to be First in its own Genus on which the rest of the Causes of the same Genus depend Such a First Cause is not only given in every Genus of Causes but also in every Subordination So Adam is the first Cause of Men in his Species
Sign viz. Antecedent Consequent or Conjoyned the thing signed is also posited and that taken away the thing signed also is taken away 1. § As it is Day and therefore the Sun will rise The Woman longs and therefore she has conceiv'd The Man flyes and therefore he is guilty of the discovered Conspiracy It is not Full-Moon and therefore there can be no Eclipse c. Now Arguments drawn from this Place also are firm when the Signs are necessary and proper to the thing signed otherwise they are only probable As he was not Sempronius 's Enemy and therefore he kill'd him not The Woman does not love the Boy and therefore she is not his Mother c. And therefore it is that the Philosophers make use of these so much the more sparingly Ax. 36. The Place from Circumstance lastly has this Canon viz. positing the Circumstance of the thing you posit the thing it self and taking that away you also take away the thing it self 1. § As he has stolen something out of a sacred Place and therefore he is Sacrilegious The Spring comes on and therefore Flowers will be found He goes covered with a Cowle or Hood after the manner of the Monks and therefore he is a Monk Christ was to be born in the time of the Jewish Polity and that at Bethlethem which Polity is not now in being as likewise Bethlehem And therefore Christ is not now to be born as believe the unconverted Jews but is so al-already He is not in Mourning and therefore he mourns not c. Arguments also from this Place are Part firm and Part probable and Use will be the only means to distinguish betwixt them And now we come to treat of the Canons belonging to Places Dissentaneous Compared and Testimonies CHAP. XVIII Of Canons belonging to Places Dissentaneous Compared and Testimonies Ax. 1. THE Place from Opposites in general has these two Canons And first that of which one of the Opposites is affirmed of that the other must be deny'd COMMENTARY 1. § As It is a House and therefore cannot be a Man he is sick and therefore cannot be sound c. And here the Laws are to be observed which we have recited Book 1. Cap. 22. concerning Opposition Ax. 2. The Second is The Predicates of Opposites are also opposed 1. § As. A just Man is he that keeps the Law and therefore an Unjust that transgresses it But here Care is to be taken lest their Difference or Affection Generical be predicated For it does not follow in that a Man has an Animate Body that a Beast has an Inanimate nor that because Whiteness is visible Blackness is invisible because to be animated is the Difference Generical of Man and Visible the Affection of Colour not Whiteness c. But this viz. that because Whiteness scatters therefore Blackness gathers the Sight is a good Consequence and does follow c. Ax. 3. The Place from Contraries has three Canons First that which takes up one Contrary that takes up another and that which takes not up one that neither another 1. § As Love is in the Concupiscent Appetite and therefore Hatred Right belongs not to Beasts and therefore they cannot suffer Injury c. Ax. 4. Secondly The Causes Effects and Adjuncts of Contraries are Contraries 1. § As Virtue is from a good and therefore Vice from an ill Habit. That makes one happy and therefore this miserable That is to be wished and therefore this to be shunned c. But here two things are to be avoided And First lest we take the Causes or Effects by Accident instead of those per se For it does not follow a good Man loves and defends his and therefore a wicked Man hates and deserts his Because Love to one's own is not from Virtue but Nature Secondly whose Effects are dependent on the Disposition of the Matter For by reason of Dissimilitude of Matter it often happens that the same Cause produces contrary Effects or contrary like For Heat hardens Clay and softens Wax and Threatnings not rarely produce that in some which in others Entreaties To wit because the Efficient acts not according to the Measure of its Virtue but that of the subjected Matter Ax. 5. Thirdly Of Contraries Immediate Of Necessity one of them must be in the Capacious Subject and the other not 1. § As Libertus is not a Servant and therefore he is free The Number is not even and therefore it is odd The Canons here observing the aforesaid Limitations are firm enough and especially the Third Ax. 6. Place from Relateds has but this Canon viz. posited one of the Relateds there is also posited the other And that taken away the other also is taken away 1. § As he to whom his Father is Master the same is his Father's Servant The Confederates of Rome are not their Subjects and therefore the Romans are not their Masters c. This Canon is most certain Ax. 7. The Place from Privatives has this Canon viz. Of Privatives The one must of Necessity be in the Capacious Subject the other not 1. § As he is blind and therefore does not see I says our Saviour am the Light of the World and therefore whosoever follows me walketh not in Darkness The Subject is said to be capable when so in respect to Nature and the time set by Nature c. This Canon holds firm Ax. 8. Place from Contradictings has this one Canon and that is one of the Contradictings being placed the other must be removed and so on the contrary 1. § This Canon is the very Foundation upon which lean the Principles of all Sciences and which whosoever denies has no Reason c. Ax. 9. That from the Major has two Rules or Canons and the first is that to which the Major agrees to that also the Minor 1. § As God gave Life to Man and therefore he will give Food Bodies and therefore Raiment c. Ax. 10. The Second That which convenes not to the Major that neither to the Minor 1. § As Angels are not pure before God and therefore much less Man A Man taken by his Enemies cannot make his Will much less a Traytor c. Ax. 11. Place from the Minor has also two Canons and first that to which the less does not agree to that neither the greater 1. § As It is not lawful to be angry with ones Brother rashly or without a Cause much less to kill him Ax. 12. Secondly That which to the Minor that also to the Major 1. § As An unchaste Look upon a Woman is a Sin and therefore Adultery God gives Food and Raiment to the Beasts and therefore how much more to Men c. Ax. 13. Place from Equal has three Canons and first to Equals equal things agree 1. § As It was lawful for David to eat the Shew-Bread to allay his Hunger and therefore for Christ's Disciples to pull the Ears of Corn and eat them on the Sabbath-Day to satisfie
Ax. 1. NOW Canons Compared are either of certain or else uncertain Place Ax. 2. And the first of these are either General or Special Of which these contain a Comparison in every those only in one certain Genus COMMENTARY 1. § For Example This Canon that whose Effect is more such that it self is more such is of certain Place because it expresses the Place of the Effect from whence this Argument is taken and General because Adaptible to all things which admit of any kind of Comparison But now that that which agrees to the better subject that it self is better is indeed of certain Place because indicating the Argument was fetch'd from the Place of the Subject But not General because only to be adapted to those things which are compared in Goodness But this that which is more lasting is best is of uncertain Place and Special because it neither expresses Where the Place of the Argument is Neither can it be Adapted to all things which are compared amongst themselves c. 1. § Now compared Canons from the Conjugates are these and first that to which one of the Conjugates more agrees to that also the other As Caesar consulted the Republick more than Bibulus and therefore in this respect was more a Consul than he Secondly If one of the Conjugates be better than one then the other of the Conjugates will be better than the other as if Piety be before Learning then a Pious Man will be before a Learned Man c. Thirdly From the Definition these and first that to which the Definition most agrees to that also the Defined as if the Definition of Whiteness be a Colour dispersing the Sight it will follow that that which is whitest disperses the Sight most c. Secondly That which agrees to the Definition that also to the Defined as if a Habit recalling the Affectious of the Mind and Actions to Mediocrity confers more to Felicity than Riches then Virtue confers more to Felicity than Riches c. So from Genus and Species Fourthly we have these as first that which agrees most to the Genus that also to the Species's and that which most to the Species's that also to the Individuals as if a Substance Immaterial be more perspicacious than a Corporeal then the Soul of Man separate will be more perspicacious than it is now when it is in the Body c. Secondly that which is contain'd under the better Genus or Species that also its self is better and so because a living thing is better than a not a Fly will be better than the Heavent c. Fifthly From the Whole and Part we have these as first if the whole Homogenous or whole consisting of Parts of the same Name and Nature be more so than such a Whole then its Part will be more so than such a Part and conrariwise as If Gold be heavier than Brass then it will follow that every Part of Gold observing the same Proportion of Magnitude will be heavier than the like Quantity of Brass c. Secondly that which is absolutely such or effects any thing as such its Whole will be more such and Effect that any thing else be more such than its Part and so if Rhubarb have a Power of Purging Choler then a Drachm will have a greater Power than has a Scruple because it is but the third Part of a Drachm c. Under which general Maxim are contain'd several special as first many Goods are to be preferr'd before fewer and so Virtue with Nobility is to be preferr'd before Virtue alone Secondly that which is Honest Pleasant and Profitable will be beyond that which is only Honest Pleasant or Profitable Thirdly that which encreases or diminishes Good by its Abcess or Access is better than that which neither encreases nor diminishes Good by its Abcess or Access Fourthly by how much more it encreases or diminishes Good by its Absence or Access by so much is it better than any other thing than the which it is better in this Respect c. Fifthly from Matter and Form in the next Place we have these and first that whose Matter is more so that also it self is more so So because Gold is better and more durable than Stone it follows that a Golden Statue is better and more durable than a Stone one c. Secondly that which has a Nobler Form that it self is also Nobler So because the Form of Man is better than that of Beasts because this is Immaterial and Immortal and that Material and Mortal it follows that Man is better than Beasts c. Sixthly From the Cause Efficient these and first that which by it self simply and by its Nature is such is more so than that which by Accident is such or in some respect or by Participation And so Meat as Meat is wholesomer than Physick because that of it self is so and this only by Accident and Light is more Profitable than Darkness because that is useful to all this only to Thieves and such as will abscond Lastly the Sun is more splendid than the Moon because that shines of its own Nature this only by Participation c. Secondly that which of it self and by its own Nature is more such that effects more and so on the Contrary So Fire heats more than Water when it is warm'd because hotter So you know Iron to be heavier than Wood because it more swiftly descends c. This Canon can be used only in Causes of them selves For in Causes by Accident it fails often For Iron red-hot altho' not hotter than Flame burns yet more vehemently the Density of its Matter assisting it and impressing the Heat more strongly upon the Patient and so in other Instances of the like Nature Thirdly that to which the Cause agrees most to that also the Effect and so on the Contrary So you may prove Old Men to be more Prudent than Young because they have more Experience in Things Fourthly that by which any thing is such that it self also must be more such And so because Water grows Warm by Fire it may be collected that the Fire is more Hot than it But this Canon in some Cases will fail us And first in Causes by Accident and Aequivocal For it does not follow that because some one is drunk by Wine that therefore Wine should be more drunk or because the Knife is sharpen'd by the Stone that therefore the Stone should be sharper than the Knife Secondly in Effects which receive not more or less As if you should prove the Father to be more a Man than his Son because the Son is so by his Means Thirdly those which depend not upon one Cause For although the Scholar derive his Learning from his Master yet it does not follow that the Master must be always Learneder than the Scholar For it may be that the Scholar may have more Ingeny and Industry than his Master c. Fifthly those whose Operation Work or Effect
of its Parts 1. § Many things when divided are true which joyn'd are false As that One sitting may stand Many on the other hand true conjoyn'd which are false divided As All Penitent Sinners shall be sav'd When the Argument runs from divided to conjoyn'd there follows a Fallacy of the Composition when from conjoyn'd to divided of the Division Each of these Fallacies may be committed Eight Ways First in Enunciations Modal As 'T is possible for one sitting to stand For if the Participle Sitting be joyn'd with the Verb Stand the Enunciation is false if joyn'd with the Mode Possible true For one sitting even while he sits has the Power or Faculty of standing but not of standing as long as he sits 2. Secondly In Enumerations whose Parts are conjoyn'd or separated by some Grammatical Conjunction As Every Animal either is Rational or Irrational But not every Animal is Rational And therefore every Animal Irrational Here the Division of the Major causes the Fallacy For the Major's true if taken conjoyntly and as a simple Enunciation whose Attribute Rational or Irrational is taken as unum quid or one something But if taken dividedly and as an Enunciation Composed in this Manner Every Animal is Rational or every Animal is Irrational apparently false 3. Thirdly When in the Major the Note of Quantities taken Collectively or Distributively into the Genus's of the Singulars It is so used as if it were taken Distributively into the Singulars of those Genus's As All the Planets are Seven The Sun and Moon are Planets And therefore the Sun and Moon are Seven This Fallacy consists in the Word All which if Collectively taken the Major indeed will be true but the Minor false For this ought to have been the Minor The Sun and Moon are all the Planets If the Word All is taken Distributively the Major will be false Another Every Animal was in Noah 's Ark Many Animals perish'd in the Flood Therefore many Animal perish'd in the Flood were in Noah 's Ark. This Fallacy also lies in the Word Every which if taken of the Singulars of the Genus's the Major will be false if of the Genus's of the Singulars the Minor For none of the Genus's of those Animals perish'd which are said to have been in Noah 's Ark. 4. Fourthly when any Word may be conjoyn'd either to the Antecedents or Consequents As that of Menander Te Servum feci liberum that is I made thee a Servant a Freeman which may signifie I brought thee into Servitude who wer 't free or I made thee being a Servant a Freeman that is Maumised thee or set the free from Slavery 5. Fifthly When a Place is quoted out of any Author and some Part of it concealed With this Fallacy the Devil Matth. 4. attempted to persuade Christ that he should throw himself down from the Pinacles of the Temple bringing in a Testimony from David after this manner It is written says he He shall give his Angels Charge concerning thee and they shall bear thee in their Hands lest at any time thou dash thy Foot against a Stones But it it is written he shall give his Angels Charge concerning thee to keep thee walking in all thy Ways that is following the Business of thy Calling with both Hands shall they bear thee up that thou dash not thy Foot against a Stone Psalm 92. 6. Sixthly When a Word is now taken in a Divided Now Conjoyned Sense As Every Incuria or Neglect is worthy to be blamed The Senate is in Curiâ that is in Court And therefore the Senate is worthy to be blamed This Fallacy rather has Place in Speech than Writing 7. Seventhly When what 's said of the Parts is concluded of the Whole or what of the Whole of the Parts as Two and Three are Even and Odd. Five are Two and Three Five thertfore are even and odd This is a Fallacy of Composition Five are One Number Two and Three are Five Therefore Two and Three are One Number This is of Division 8. Eightly When those things are conjoyned which are severally predicated or divided which are joyntly As This Dog is a Father This Dog is thine And therefore this Dog is thy Father This is a Fallacy of the Composition Again Mycillus is a good Shooemaker And therefore Mycillus is a good Man This is of Division This Fallacy also may be reduc'd to that of from a Word simply to one secundum quid or according to something or its Contrary For nothing hinders but that several Causes of Fallacy may concur to the same Catch Ax. 10. The Sophism of Accident or Prosody is that which rises from the Way of Writing or Pronouncing any thing Either differently writing those things which are Pronounced after the same Manner or differently pronouncing those which are alike written Ax. 11. And this Sophism is solv'd either by shewing that those things which are the same Manner pronounc'd are differently written or differently pronounc'd which are in the same Manner written 1. § The Word Prosody or Accent here is generally taken for every Variation of the Voice The Captions of this Place are of two kinds as appears from the Definitions proposed Of the First those in which the Difference of Writings dissembled by a Similitude of Pronunciation And that 's done three manner of Ways For either those Words are pronounced after the same manner which differ in Letters or Aspiration or Notes of the Accents For Example Omnis Equus every Equus that is Horse is a Beast Every just Man is Aequus that is Righteous Therefore every just Man is Beast This Catch is in the Letter Moreover Every Ara that is Altar is in the Temple A Stable of Hogs is named Hara that is Sty And therefore a Stable of Hogs is in the Temple This consists in the Aspiration for in the Greek the Words are written otherwise both alike Lastly If one confound the Verb amare to love with the Adverb of that Name which signifies bitterly the Caption shall be from the Note of the Accent These Captions were usual after Aspirations and Notes of Accents began to be written over their Words But before these Captions belonged to the second Genus 2. Which are committed two manner of Ways And first when we take that in earnest which is Ironically written Or on the Contrary As If a Servant should think himself commended by his angry Master writing to him after this manner Ha Good Sir You have taken Care very fairly Or the like Secondly when Words which have their Antepenultima or last Syllable but one long should be taken as if short As if any one should confound the Word Leporem a Hare with the Word Lepôrem Facetiousness c. Ax. 12. Sophism from the Figure of Speech is then when from the Likeness of Words it is concluded that they have the same Accidents or Signification Ax. 13. This is solved by shewing the Diversity of Accidents or Signification in the Words alike 1.