When the Matter of Generation and Composition is divers that is said to be the remote this the proximate Matter 2. § Now Aristotle divides Matter also Book 8. of the Met. Cap. 6. into intelligible and sensible And Intelligible is that when in Accidents or other simple things the Mind distinguishes between Material and Formal So Letters are said to be the Matter of Words Words of Speech so Precepts of Discipline Method the Form After this manner are distinguished Material and Formal in the Subjects of Disciplines Material is the thing it self which is considered Formal the manner of its Confideration So the Material of Physicks is Natural Body Formal as Natural Ax. 12. Form is defin'd to be that which explains What a thing is or the Ratio of that by which it is explained What a thing is or lastly the Ratio of the Essence 1. § Form in the Greek is is term'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or also 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 that is Species or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 that is Exemplar sometimes also 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 that is according to Hermolaus Barbarus its perfect Habitude or the like These three all conspire in the same thing and return to this viz. That Form is the Internal Cause by which a thing is that which it is For by Matter also it exists but by Form it is that which it is that is of this or that Species For Example That Man exists is no less from Matter than Form But that he is a Man rather than of any other Species of Creatures is due only to Form Ax. 13. The Offices of Form are Two viz. to inform the Matter and with such matter to constitute the Composed 1. § And these are not so much different in the thing it self as in Reason For when Matter of it self informed and determined receives Form it is determined with Form to constitute a certain Species of Compositum Both therefore constitute the Composed Matter by receiving Form and Form by determining or Forming Matter and that by an Union intervening For without an Union of Form with Matter the Composed is not constituted which brings us to the next Theorem viz. that Ax. 14. Form is four ways divided and first into Material and Immaterial Ax. 15. Material Form is that which is produced out of the Power of Matter or which dependeth upon Matter in that self same Moment and Act by which it is made Ax. 16. Immaterial which is not produc'd neither does it depend c 1. § To be produc'd out of the Power of Matter is nothing else but to be produc'd by an Efficient Cause in the Matter and so as that the Matter promotes that Action by its Causality After this Manner are produc'd Material Forms Forms Immaterial are also produc'd by an Efficient Cause in the Matter but the Matter it self does not contribute towards the Action And this properly is said to create Material Forms not only when making but also when made depend upon Matter Immaterial neither Hence is it that those are Corruptible these Incorruptible All Forms of Natural things the Humane Soul excepted are Material which only is Immaterial Ax. 17. Secondly Form is divided into Substantial and Accidental of which that Constitutes the Substance this the Accident in the Concrete 1. § For Example The Substantial Form of a Musician as he is Man is the Rational Soul Accidental as he is a Musician Musick In the like Manner the Substantial Form of a Statue is the Form it self abstractedly of the Marble or Brass Accidental as a Statue the Figure Ax. 18. Thirdly Form is divided into Natural and Artificial Ax. 19. Natural is that which is of Nature Artificial of Art 1. § For Example The Soul is the Form Natural of every living thing The Forms of other Natural things want Names and therefore are to us almost unknown Figure is the Artificial Form of a Statue as an Artificial thing not as a Natural to wit Marble or Brass For Artificial Forms are Qualities of Natural things no Formal Causes but yet they are the Formal Causes of Artificial things as Artificial For Artificials are certain Accidents Concrete with their Substances Ax. 20. Fourthly and Lastly Form is divided into Principal and Disposing Ax. 21. The Principal is that which constitutes the Species it self Ax. 22. Disponent which disposes the Matter to an Aptitude for the Reception of the Principal Form 1. § The Principal Form is always a Substantial Form disposing either Accidental or Substantial Disposition Accidental is required in all things having a Substantial Form Substantial in animated only For Example When Wood's burnt it is first made hot and dryed and after this manner made fit to receive the Form of Fire So likewise when a Statue is made out of a Beam or Timber it is by degrees to be disposed and form'd into the Figure of a Statue But when an Animal is to be generated of Seed this Seed not only by its Qualities but also Substantial Form is to be disposed and made fit to receive the Soul which Form in Respect of the Seed is a Principal tho' of the Soul or Animal a Disposing c. 2. § Form also may be divided into Intelligible and Sensible but of this enough has been said already in the Doctrine of Matter CHAP. XVII Of Efficient Cause Ax. 1. CAuses External are those which enter not the Essence of the thing as Efficient and End Ax. 2. An Efficient is an External Cause from which a thing proceeds by a true Causality 1. § For a thing may be said to proceed also from the End but by a Metaphorical not a true Causality Ax. 3. An Efficient is of a very large Extent Ax. 4. And is first divided into Active which by the Mediation of Action causes the Effect and into that from which a thing immediately flows and proceeds without any Action 1. § It sometimes happens that a Cause causes the Effect by the Mediation of some Action which is said to be its Causality in causing Such a Cause we call Active sometimes by its own Existence without any Causality distinct from its Existence and this by some is call'd Emanative Which Word tho' feign'd with Repugnance to the Analogy of the Latin Tongue yet is it to be used upon this Occasion till a more Convenient can be found out For Example The Fire is the Emanative Cause of its own Heat but the Active of anothers Ax. 5. Secondly Cause Efficient is divided into Immanent and Transient Ax. 6. Immanent is that which produces the Effect in its self Ax. 7. Transient out of it self 1. § For Example When a Workman builds a House or any one throws a Stone both these are said to be Transient but when our Mind understands or desires any thing it is said to be the Immanent Cause of those Conceptions or Affections which in understanding or desiring it forms Ax. 8. The Conditions of the Transient Cause are Two 1st
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The English Atlas Volume the 3d containing the Description of Part of Germany viz. Schwaben the Palatinate of Bavaria Arch-Dukedom of Austria Kingdom of Hungary Principality of Transylvania the Cyrcle of Westphalia with the Neighbouring Provinces By W. Nicholson M. A. Arch-Dcacon of Carlisle and Fellow of Queens-College in Oxon. Printed for Moses Pitt With Maps always sold for 40 s. But now without at 5 s. Advertisement ALL Gentlemen and others may be furnished with all sorts of Acts of Parliament and Pamphlets either new or old A compleat Sett of all the Philosophical Transactions to this Day at very reasonable Rates may be had at the abovesaid Place A Table of the Chapters and Titles contain'd in these two following Books of LOGICK BOOK I. CHAP. I. OF the Nature and Division of Logick CHAP. II. Of Themes Simple and Composed Vniversal and Singular CHAP. III. Of the Categories in general CHAP. IV. Of Substance CHAP. V. Of Quality CHAP. VI. Of Quantity CHAP. VII Of Things related to each other CHAP. VIII Of Action and Passion CHAP. IX Of the four last Categories CHAP. X. Of the Praedicates in general CHAP. XI Of Genus and Species CHAP. XII Of Difference CHAP. XIII Of Property and Accident CHAP. XIV Of Whole and Part. CHAP. XV. Of Cause and Caused in general CHAP. XVI Of Matter and Form CHAP. XVII Of Efficient Cause CHAP. XVIII Of End CHAP. XIX Of Subject and Adjunct CHAP. XX. Of Conveniency of Things CHAP. XXI Of Diversity or Distinction of Things CHAP. XXII Of Opposition of Things CHAP. XXIII Of Order and of that which is said to be First Last and Together with CHAP. XXIV Of Interpretation in general and of Noun and Verb. CHAP. XXV Of Etymology and Conjugates CHAP. XXVI Of Synonyms Homonyms and various Acceptations of Words CHAP. XXVII Of Vtterance or Enunciation in general and that which is simple and compos'd in special CHAP. XXVIII Of Enunciation Pure and Modal CHAP. XXIX Of Enunciations Vniversal Particular Indefinite and Singular CHAP. XXX Of Enunciation Affirming Denying Finite and Infinite CHAP. XXXI Of Enunciation True and False Necessary and Contingent and their Degrees CHAP. XXXII Of Conversion Aequipollence and Subalternation of Enunciations CHAP. XXXIII Of Opposition of Enunciations BOOK II. CHAP I. OF Definition in general and Definition Nominal CHAP. II. Of Perfect Definition CHAP. III. Of Imperfect Definition CHAP. IV. Of the manner of Investigation or Quest of Definition CHAP. V. Of Division its Laws and Species's CHAP. VI. Of Definition of Syllogism and all its Parts CHAP. VII Of the three Figures of Syllogism and their Modes CHAP. VIII Of the Laws Rules and Proprieties of Syllogisms CHAP. IX Of the Declaration of the second and third Figure by Reduction to the First and Exposition so far as is necessary for our Purpose CHAP. X. Of finding out a Medium with Propriety to each Figure and Mode CHAP. XI Of Induction Enthymeme and Example CHAP. XII Of Syllogism Hypothetical Disjunctive and Relative CHAP. XIII Of Dilemma Prosyllogism and Sorites CHAP. XIV Of Syllogism Modal and Indirect CHAP. XV. Of Syllogism Dialectical or Probable CHAP. XVI Of the Invention or sinding out of
is said to be Action as receiv'd by the Patient a Passion For as the Way from Athens to Thebes and from Thebes to Athens is one only Way collated to diverse Terms And as the Rising and Falling of a Mountain or Hill differs only in Respect so also Action and Passion are in this only Respect different one being referred to the Agent the other to the Patient Ax. 11. Of Actions some are Immanent others Transient Ax. 12. An Action immanent is that whose Effect is in the Agent as to understand to will Ax. 13. Transient whose Effect is in another thing as to burn to beat Ax. 14. In the Action immanent the Agent and the Patient are the same In the Transient different in the thing it self Ax. 15. An Action Transient is divided according to the Diversity of its Term to which into four Species the first of which is that of Substance as Generation to which is opposed Corruption The second Quantity as Accretion to which is opposed Diminution The third Quality as Alteration The fourth of Place or Ubi as Local Motion 1. § These things are delivered by Aristotle in the 14th Chapter of the Categories but more fully to be handled in the Physicks Ax. 16. Action may also be divided into Univocal and Aequivocal Ax. 17. Action Univocal is that by which the Agent produces an Effect of its own Species Ax. 18. Action Aequivocal of a diverse 1. § As when a Mouse generates a Mouse or Heat Heat the Action is Univocal But when the Sun generates Mice or Light Heat the Action is Aequivocal Ax. 19. Lastly Action is divided into Perficient or Corrupting that is Spoiling Ax. 20. Action Perficient is that by which something is effected without the Destruction of any thing Ax. 21. Corrupting that by which something is done and another thing destroyed 1. § For Example Illumination is an Action Perficient For when the Air is enlighten'd it is done by Light Nothing of Form destroyed but Generation and Heating are Actions Corrupting For when an Animal or any such thing is generated at the same time something else is destroyed and he that was hot becomes so by the Dismission of the Cold. The Cause of this Difference is because Action Perficient is conversant amongst Terms privatively opposed corrupting between either Contruries or Disparates Ax. 22. The Notes of Action are two First Action has a Contrary Ax. 23. Secondly Action receives more or less 1. § The Action of Heating is contrary to that of making cold and some things heat or cool more others less And to heat more in this Place is not to heat more swiftly but intensly that is to produce a more intense Heat Both these Notes belong to Action upon the Account of the Term to which and therefore neither to all but those only whose Terms are contrary and receive Intension and Remission And therefore to generate to figure c. have no Contrary nor are they intended or remitted because Substance or Figure neither has a Coutrary or is intended or remitted 2. § And all those things which we have said of Action agree also to Passion For the Divisions and Notes of both are the same CHAP. IX Of the Four last Categories Ax. 1. UBi is a Mode after which finite things are said to be somewhere 1. § Ubi differs from Place in that Place if strictly taken agrees only with Bodies Ubi also with Incorporeal Substances if finite For Substances Incorporeal are said to be in a Place definitively that is they are so said to be somewhere as not to be elsewhere but yet so as they occupy not any Place or exclude other Substances whether Corporeal or Incorporeal out of it which is improperly to be in a Place but Corporeal Substances are said to be in a Place circumscriptively that is are said to occupy and expel other Corporeal Substances out of it which is properly to be in a Place I say definite because God who is Infinite is not said to be somewhere but everywhere 2. § There is also another difference between Place and Ubi For Place belongs to the Question in which it is asked How much a thing is in Quantity or how much Room will it take up Ubi to the Question in which it 's ask'd Where or whence the Thing is Whither or which Way gone And those Answers which are made to these Questions as at home abroad in the Country in the Temple hence thence hither thither this Way that Way c. are plac'd in this Category Ax. 2. When is a Mode after which finite things are said sometime to be to have been or to come 1. § Quando or When differ from Time strictly and properly so called as Ubi from Places For Time strictly taken agrees only to Things Successive and consisting in a perpetual Motion and Flux of Parts That is according to Priomty or Posterinrity For it is defined a Number of Motion according to First and Last in Book 4. of the Physicks Cap. 11. But When is also attributed to things moment any and permanent if finite For those things which are infinite and eternal are not said sometime to be but always 2. sect Besides the Words of Time belong to Quantity and to the Question made by how long as an Hour a Year an Age c But the Words which belong to this Category to the Question made by When as to Day to Morrow Yesterday in the Summer in the Spring in the Calends in the Nones in the Consulship of Manlius c. Ax. 3. Site is the Order of the Parts of the Body amongst themselves 5. § For Site belongs only to Bodies For the Order of the Parts in Time or Number uses not to be called Site For although Site cannot be changed without Local Motion which is a Motion to Where yet is not Site to be confounded with Ubi not so much as in Bodies For the Ubi may be changed not changing the Site As when one without any Motion of Parts is carried out of one Place into another 2. § Site is either natural as that of the Arm at the Shoulder-Blade or of the Hand at the Wrist or voluntary as to sit to stand to lie to be prone supine c. Ax. 4. Habit is a Manner after which Clothes or any thing like Clothes are put about the Body appended or any other way adjoined to it 1. § To this Category belong all those Words which signifie the Conjunction of Clothes Armour and such like things with the Body as Clothed Armed Gowned Shielded Speared Bearded Strewed or Covered with Arras Tapestry c. These and the like Words signifie not Clothes or Arms but the Conjunction of Clothes or Arms with the Body which Aristotle signified when in the 4th Book of the Metaph. Cap. 20. he called Habit the Act of him which has and of that which is had and between him which has on the Garment and the Garment it self
Similitude Accidents in the Concrete as Just White c. in which the Subject is as it were the Matter Accident in the Abstract is the Form in which Number also are Works performed by Art Of this Place also are those things in which are distinguished Material and Formal Or in which there is something Analogous to Matter and Form So the Matter of Disciplines are Precepts the Form Method Of Interpretation Voice the Form Signification This whole uses to be call'd Physical because Physicks vindicate to themselves the Consideration of those things which consist of Matter and Form Vulgarly it 's called Essential Ax. 12. An Integral Whole is that which has Part out of Part. 1. § Now Essential Parts are really different for Matter is one thing and Form another But yet one Part is not out of another For Matter permeates Matter and informs all its Parts But Parts Integral because each is endued with his proper Quantity not only differ in themselves but also Site or at least Order So that one is not contained in another For this it is to have Part out of Part. For Example The Parts of the Human Body are Head Breast Belly Limbs of the which one containeth not another So the Parts of Number are divers and one is not contained in another This Whole is termed Mathematical because Quantity is of Mathematical Consideration Vulgarly Integral more properly Integrate Ax. 13. An Integral Whole is either Continued or Discrete Ax. 14. Both are divided into Homogeneal and Heterogenal that is Similar and Dissimilar Ax. 15. Homogeneal is that which has Parts of the same Name and Nature Ax. 16. Heterogeneal of a Diverse 1. § This Distribution of the whole Integral is extant in the First Book of the Hist An. Cap. 1. and Book 2. Of the Parts of An. Cap. 1. and Book 1. Of the Gener. of An. Cap. 1. For Example Inanimate Substances as Water Wine Flesh also Magnitude Motion and Time are Wholes Homogeneal Continual The Bodies of Animate Heterogeneal Continual Numbers as Three Ten are Wholes Homogeneal Discrete An Army Church the World Heterogeneal and of the same Denomination Ax. 17. A Part Heterogeneal is either Principal or less Principal Ax. 18. That 's a Principal by whose Ablation or Taking away the whole is destroyed Ax. 19. The less by whose taking away the Whole is only maimed or mutilated 1. § For Example Hand Brain Heart Liver are Principal Parts of Man because these taken away of Necessity the Man must die Foot Hand Ear c. are less Principal because these being taken away it is not necessary a Man should die Ax. 20. A Whole by Accident is chiefly said Four Ways and first of a Cause of divers Effects secondly an Effect of divers Causes thirdly of a Subject of divers Adjuncts fourthly of an Adjunct of divers Subjects 1. § First a Cause of divers Effects And so a Plant may be said to be a Whole because of Plants some heat others cool c. Secondly an Effect of divers Causes as Mice some of which are said to be generated of the Sun others of Mice c. Thirdly a Subject of divers Adjuncts as Men some of which are said to be bond some free some good some bad c. An Adjunct of divers Subjects as Diseases some of which are said to be of the Mind some the Body these again either of the Brain Eyes Lights c. CHAP. XV. Of Cause and Caused in general Ax. 1. A Cause is that by the Force of which a thing comes to pass COMMENTARY 1. § Principle Element and Cause are Words that are ally'd in Signification Principle is either largely taken or strictly Largely it is defined Book 4. Of the Metaphysicks Cap. 1. to be the First from whence any thing is or exists or is known More strictly Book 4. Of the Physicks Cap. 5. where Principles are defined to be those things which are neither from one another nor others and of and from which are all things In this Sense there are only reckon'd Three viz. Matter Form and Privation The Definition of Element is Extant Book 4. Of the Metaphysicks Cap. 3. and is thus An Element is that our of which any thing at the first is compounded in which it is and which in its own Species is indivisible into any other Species 2. § Cause is here said to be that by which a thing is that is which confers somewhat towards the things Existence and therefore Privation cannot be a Cause because it confers Nothing but only towards its Mutation Ax. 2. A Caused is that which is constituted of its Causes Ax. 3. The Cause is before it s Caused both in Nature and Knowledge 1. § In Nature because the Caused depends upon the Cause Knowledge that is simply and distinct Knowledge which follows the Order of Nature For to us the Cause is more known than it because nearer to the Senses For from the Senses do we derive all our Sensible Knowledge Ax. 4. The Causes are Four viz. Matter Form Efficient and End 1. § This Partition is extant Book 2. Of the Post Cap. 2. Book 2. Of the Physicks Cap. 3. and Book 4. Cap. 2. And is built upon the best Reason For whatever is made is made by another For nothing is made by its self There is therefore an Efficient Cause Nothing finite can produce any thing out of nothing There is therefore Matter out of which things are to be made and Form which is introduc'd upon that Matter when things are made Nothing lastly acts without Design there is therefore an End for whose sake the Cause Efficient acts Ax. 5. The Caused of Matter and Form is call'd the Composed of the Efficient the Effect of the End the Means or Designed and these differ not in Reality but Reason 1 § And since to the Constitution of the Caused Four Causes concur as in all Corporeal things there do it ought not to seem strange that one and the same thing should be called Composed Effect Means c. according as it is compared with divers Causes Ax. 6. In every Genus there is a certain Subordination of Causes Ax. 7. Subordinate are those that depend one upon another 1. § To wit either as to their Existence and so the Son upon the Father the Father upon the Grandfather or Causality and so the Quill upon the Hand in Writing or both and so the Second Causes upon the First or Creatures upon God Ax. 8. Causes likewise are said either to be Essentially or Accidentally subordinated Ax. 9. Essentially are those of which one depends upon another when and in as much as it causes Ax. 10. Accidentally Of which one indeed depends upon another but not when or in as much as it causes 1. § And so a Cause is said to be two Ways subordinated by Accident First when it depends indeed upon a superiour Cause but not when that is when it Causes and this is Effected when it depends upon it
for Existence and not Causality After this manner depends the Father upon his Ancestors in the begetting of his Son and every near Cause upon the more remote Secondly when it also depends upon a Superiour Cause when it causes or for its Causality but not for as much as it causes or not in the same manner after which it causes In this manner the Statuary is subordinate to the Heavens in the making of the Statue For because the Statuary stands in need of the Virtue of the Heavens towards his Work he may be said to depend upon the Heavens in Respect of his Causality but because not as he makes the Statue but as he lives He is said to depend upon the Heavens by Accident and to be Accidentally subordinated to them in the making of the Statue In the same manner the Horse spurr'd on by his Rider hurting his Leg halts The hurt Leg is the Cause of his Halting subordinated to the Rader by Accident For the Leg or Horse is impell'd on by the Rider to Motion but not to a vitious Motion c. Ax. 11. In such a Subordination there is ever one next Cause the rest are remote Ax. 12. The next Cause is that which immediately constitutes the Caused Ax. 13. Remote that which concurs to the Constitution of the Caused by the Mediation of some other Cause of its own Genus 1. § A Cause is said to be next two Ways either in its own Genus or absolutely That is said to be absolutely next which not only immediately but by its own Existence constitutes the Caused And so that it being supposed it is necessary the Caused be so too The next Cause in its Genus we have already defined and have said it immediately concurs towards the Constitution of the Caused no other of its own Order coming between One thing may have many Causes in their own Genus next but one only that is absolutely next which in Substances is Form Accidents Efficient and End So whereas to Man the Proximate Matter is Humane Body Efficient Father End Well-being Form Rational Soul the Rational Soul yet only is the next absolute Cause Ax. 14. Lastly In every Genus there are some Causes Total some Partial Ax. 15. That Cause is total which in its Species wholly causes the Whole Caused Ax. 16. That Partial which joyned with the other Causes of its own Species causes the Caused only in Part. 1. § In every Genus of Causes there are many Species's of Cause and those either Subordinate as Cause First and Second Next and Remote Principal and Instrumental or Coordinate of which one depends not upon another A Total Cause is said wholly to constitute the Caused because not assisted by other Causes of its own Species For Example The Writing depends upon the Quill and the Hand but upon both as total Causes For the Quill is only or wholly the Instrumental and the Hand the Principal Cause So likewise when God the Sun and Man are said to Generate Man every one of these Causes is Total God is the First the Sun or Heaven is the total Universal Man the total Second and Particular But when two Horses draw in a Cart they are said to be partial Causes because they are both of the same Species which brings us to the next Axiom viz. Ax. 17. Of One thing there cannot be many total Causes of the same Species but there may be many different in Species and Subordinate 1. § If many Causes not Subordinate do concur to the same Caused of necessity they must be Partial For the total Cause causes the whole thing Wherefore if there are many total Causes either the rest cause Nothing and so are not Causes or else cause again what was caus'd before But if Causes different in Species are Subordinate it may so be that the same Caused may depend upon many Causes total So the whole Writing depends on the Hand and the Quill and the whole Man upon God and the Sun and his Parents CHAP. XVI Of Matter and Form Ax. 1. OF the Four Causes Two are Internal Matter and Form and as many External Efficient and End Ax. 2. Those Causes are said to be Internal which enter the Essence of the Caused as Parts COMMENTARY 1. § Altho' Form be far more noble than Matter and confer more to the Constituting the Caused yet it is not to be doubted but that Matter also is part of the Essence and not only a Vehicle or Receiver Ax. 3. Matter in Greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 is defined to be that out of which inexisting something is made 1. § This Definition is extant Book 2. of the Physicks Cap. 3. and Book 4. of the Metaph. Cap. 2. But it may more Fully and Explicatiously be defined in this Manner Matter is an Internal Cause of which any thing is made or consists Why I add Consists will be sufficiently understood out of the 9th Theoreme Matter is also defined Book 2. Post Cap. 11. but more obscurely to be That which any thing being supposed of Necessity must be so too 2. § Generally Matter is divided into that out of which in which and about which That out of which is that which is properly so called and we have but now defined In which the Subject about which the Object Of which in their Places Ax. 4. The Offices of Matter are two to take up Forms and sustain them and with the Form to constitute the Composed Ax. 5. Matter is either First or Second Ax. 6. The first Matter is informed Ax. 7. The Second formed 1. § Altho' no Matter may exist without Form yet Because Matter is not altogether nothing nor the same with Form why may it not by it self be understood not understanding Form And this is the first Matter which Aristotle Book 1. of the Physicks Cap. 9. defines in this Manner That is Matter says he which is the first Subject out of which any thing is made So that it is not in it by Accident and if it should be spoiled it would be into that resolved at last Nor is it yet to be thought that the First and Second Matter are two several Matters Nay one and the same Matter is said to be first and second as it is this way or that way considered Ax. 8. Farther Matter is either of Natural or Artificial Bodies 1. § For Example Elements are the Matter of Mix'd Bodies Seed of Living Gold or Silver of the Cup Wood of the Shelf c. Ax. 9. And both of these either of Composition or Generation Ax. 10. The Matter of Composition is that of which a thing consists Ax. 11. Of Generation out of which it is made 1. § For Example The Body is the Matter of Composition in an Animal Seed of Generation In things of Art the Matter of Generation and Composition is almost the same as also in Meteors For a Shelf is made and consists of Wood Clouds of Vapours Ice of Water c.
because begotten of no other Man as the rest were but immediately created of God So also the Heaven is the first Cause of Motion not absolutely but in the Genus of Natural Causes as is collected from the 1st Book of the Meteors Cap. 1. In the same manner may the Soul be said to be the first Cause of vital Operations and likewise every principal Cause in regard of its Instruments c. Ax. 30. Seventhly Cause Efficient is divided into Universal and Particular Ax. 31. Universal is that which concurrs with other Causes with the same Efficiency to the producing of many Effects Ax. 32. A Particular only which by its Efficiency produces but one Effect 1. § Universal Causes are God and the Heavens God concurrs with particular Causes to all Effects The Heavens only to them which are Natural and Material In this Sense Book 2. of the Physicks Cap. 2. The Sun and Man I add God are said to beget Man The Sun as an universal For with the same Efficiency it concurrs to the producing of all things Man as a Particular So also may a Driver be said to be a Universal when driving a Team of Horses because in the same manner and with the same Virtue he drives all his Horses as well the Sound as the Lame Ax. 33. Lastly and Eighthly Cause Efficient is divided into next and remote Ax. 34. The Next is that which produces the Effect immediately Ax. 35. The Remote which produces the Effect by means of some more neighbouring Cause 1. § A Cause Efficient is said to be two ways Next to wit either generally or specially In general that Cause is said to be Next which either by its Existence they commonly say Suppositum or Virtue is joyned to the Effect For such Virtue being an Instrument of the principal Cause it is deem'd with the Principal to be one only And therefore when the principal Cause by its Virtue is joyned to the Effect it is its self esteemed to be joyned to the Effect Neither is it any matter whether that Virtue be an Instrument conjoyned or separate For Example The Fire is said to be the next Cause of Ustion Parents of their Children notwithstanding the Fire acts by Mediation of Heat and the Parents of Seed For altho' Heat and Seed are Instruments yet do they not effect by their Intervening but that the principal Cause may be said to be next to the Effect A Cause therefore is said to be remote in this Sense viz. which neither by its Existence nor Virtue is joyned to the Effect As when the Grandfather is said to be the Cause of his Son's Son or Grandson c. 2. A Cause Efficient is said to be next in Species which is so joyned by its Existence to its Effect as that it is joyned to it without any mediating Virtue And a next Cause has no Place in Substances but only Accidents especially proper For a Substance does not effect a Substance without some mediate or instrumental Virtue And this is the Cause which is said to be absolutely next and that is either Internal or External Internal is that which is in the Subject of the Accident of which it is the Cause So the Soul and every Substantial Form is said to be the next Cause of its own Proprieties Hitherto appertaineth the Emanative Cause Likewise the Continent or Synectical of the Physicians External is that which is not in the Subject of that Accident whose Cause it is And so the Interposition of the Earth is said to be the next Cause of an Eclipse But the Use of this Cause in the Definition and Demonstration of proper Accidents is much the more great CHAP. XVIII Of End Ax. 1. ENd is defin'd to be that for the sake of which a thing is 1. § Being that which moves the Efficient to Action by superinducing its Love upon it and begetting an Appetite on and Desire of it self Ax. 2. End is three ways divided and first into that of which and for which Ax. 3. The End of which is that which the Efficient desires Ax. 4. For which for whose sake or for which the Efficient desires such an End 1. § As for Instance The of which of Medicine is Health for which the Sick Ax. 5. Secondly End is divided into Principal and Secondary Ax. 6. The Principal End is that which the Agent first or also principally intends Ax. 7. The Secondary which the Agent so intends as that it may enjoy it with the Principal or else attain it if the first and principal End should fail 1. § For Example The principal End of Clothes is that our Bodies should be defended against the Inclemency of the Heavens the Secondary Conjoyned with that Principal is that they should adorn it So the Principal End for which God was pleas'd to manifest himself in the Creation of the World was that Man should be endued with the Knowledge of God and Piety The Secondary and Succedaneous that he might render them inexcusable who holding the Truth in Unrighteousness go on still in Iniquity Ax. 8. Thirdly and Lastly End is divided into Subordinate and Last Ax. 9. A Subordinate End is that which is referred to some farther End Ax. 10. The Last to which all other Ends are referred that it self to no farther 1. § There is often a long Series of Subordinate Ends in which the Subordinate is a Means in Respect of the Sequent End For Example One digging in the Earth to fetch out Iron Iron is drawn out that of it may be made some Instrument which may be serviceable for our Use As suppose a Penknife or a Lancet the Lancet inserves the Physician for the Cutting of the Vein the Cutting of the Vein to transmit the Superfluous Blood or take away the Vitious The Loss of Blood conduces to the Conservation or Recuperation of Health Our Health indeed of it self is to be desired but referred notwithstanding to this End that our Actions may be free and Expedite Actions again are referred either to Pleasure or Glory or Honesty or something else in which Subordination of Ends there is no going to Infinity as we have taught before For otherwise vain and fruitless would be that Appetition which Nature has planted in all things as the Philosopher argues Book 1. of the Ethicks Cap. 1. There is therefore some chief End in which the Appetite must terminate and acquiesce 2. § An End is said to be two ways last either in its own Genus or absolutely That is said to be so in its own Genus which is the last amongst those Ends which are intended by the same Agent So in that Series which I have brought there are many Ends which are last in their own Genus For to fetch forth Iron is the last End of such who dig in the Mines the Penknife of the Smith Health of the Physician But there is but one absolutely last and that is Felicity 3. § That End which is subordinated in
declare not the Essence of a thing and therefore are imperfect unless the same thing happen to be more known to us and more known in it self But neither must a perfect Definition consist only of those that are more known but also Indemonstrable For Definition is the Principle of Demonstration as is said Book 1. of the Soul Cap. 1. and Book 1. Post Cap. 1. It is taught that the Principles of Demonstration are immediate which certainly could not be if their Parts were to be demonstrated by former Causes Ax. 11. A perfect Definition consists of the next Genus and Specifick Difference 1. § This Canon is precepted Book 6. Top. Cap. 1. But yet if the next Genus want a Name there is added in its Place a Remote with a Difference to limit it and make it a next Genus So when an Animal is desin'd to be a Living Feeling Corporeal Substance Living Corporeal Substance is put in place or lieu of a next Genus and the specifick Difference is Feeling Ax. 12. The Difference of Substances if not without is always taken from their Form but if without or that Form be unknown Propriety is added in the stead of Form 1. § So when Man is defined to be a Rational Animal the Difference is taken from his Form which is a Rational Soul But because incorporeal Substances have none and the Specificks of Corporeal even lye hid because of themselves they incurr not our Senses in the Place of Form some Property must be taken as An Angel is an Incorporeal Substance a Dog a Barking-Beast c. Ax. 13. The Differences of Accidents are not taken from their Form or Essence but their respect to their Subject Object Cause Efficient or Final or somewhat else not contain'd in the Essence 1. § Which is the Cause or Reason why Aristotle Book 6. of the Metaph. Cap. 5. says that Substances are simply and primarily defin'd Accidents secondarily only or according to something and that the Definitions of Accidents are Orations through Additions because those things that are added to their Genus in their Definitions are without their Essence and almost of another Category Ax. 14. Proprieties are defin'd by Genus Subject and next Cause and that either Efficient Final or both 1. § And first Efficient as an Eclipse of the Moon is a Defect of Light in it by Reason of the Earth's being Diametrically interposed between the Sun and it Thunder is the Noise of a broken Cloud by reason of the Fire 's being oppress'd and so 2dly Final as Sense is a Natural Faculty in an Animal for the End of Judging betwixt Singulars The Appetite for the gaining of what is good to its self and avoiding what is Evil or both as the Act of Respiration is a Reciprocal Attraction and Expulsion of the Air by the Lungs for the Refreshment of the Heart c. The Subject now 's sometimes in a Definition of Proprieties unmentioned because it is contained either in the Genus or next Cause As the Memory is an internal Sense conserving of the Images of things known Here the Subject of Memory is not express'd to wit Animal because contain'd in the Word Sense and express'd in the Definition of that So also Risibility is a nanural Faculty of Laughing arising from a Rational Animal I say not of Man because sufficiently understood when I say arising from a Rational Animal c. Ax. 15. Accidents improper besides the Genus take to themselves in Definition in the Place of Difference either Subject or Object Cause Efficient or Final or something that is made out of these But 1. § The manner of defining of these is scarcely to be contained within any certain Rules For some are defined by Genus and Subject as Simity is the Crookedness of the Nose Some Genus and Object as Physick is the Science of Natural Body And after this manner Theoretical Sciences and some again by Genus and End as Grammar is the Art of speaking well Also Genus End and Object as Logick is an Art of making of Instruments and therewith directing the Understanding in the Knowledge of Things or Liberality is a Virtue observing a Mediocrity in giving and receiving of Moneys c. After this manner Arts and Habits Moral Some lastly by Genus and Cause Efficient as Whiteness is a Colour arising from a Predomination of Clear Sound a Patible Quality arising from a Stroke of the Air between two Bodies collided or hit one against another And after this manner all Patible Qualities if not proper of other Genus's of Accidents there can scarce be given any certain Rules but each how they are to be desin'd Use and Examples of approved Authors must teach which for this End the Studious of Logick ought to collect together Ax. 16. The Parts of Definition are always so to be plac'd as that the Genus may precede the Difference and every Word following may limit its foregoing 1. § So teaches Aristotle Book 2. Post Cap. 13. For Example An Animal is not to be defined a Feeling Animate but an Animate Feeling Body c and so we come to Imperfect Definition CHAP. III. Of Imperfect Definition Ax. 1. IMperfect Definition is properly a Description and that is either Necessary or Arbitrary Ax. 2. Necessary viz. when the Defined is either not capable of a perfect Definition or else through the Imbecillity of our Minds we cannot attain to a perfect Definition of it or lastly when there are wanting fit Words required for an Accurate Definition Ax. 3. Of the first Sort are first Infinite Things and Secondly those which have not a true Essence Thirdly a Perfect one and Fourthly one by it self Fifthly and lastly those which are not placed immediately under some Genus COMMENTARY 1. § And 1st Infinite things as God having not a true Essence as Beings of Reason Things feigned Images of Things Privations Not a Perfect as Parts Principles of Things Things in doing or Imperfect Not one by themselves as Concretes Aggregates Complex Not under one Genus as Transcendents Supreme Genus's At least not immediately as Individuals For these are contained immediately under Species and by Mediation of that under Genus Ax. 4. By reason of the Imbecillity of our Minds or Understanding Substances Incorporereal and most of the most special Species's of Corporeal Substances 1. § For Genus's and Species's Subaltern may be defin'd any way as an Animal is a living feeling Body c. In the Definition of Corporeal Substances of the lowest Species in the Place of Essential Difference there uses to be added Propriety as we observ'd a little before The Proprieties of Incorporeal are likewise unknown to us Yet Man although he is the lowest Species is rightly enough defin'd a Rational Animal Ax. 5. When a fit or proper Word is wanting there are to be two or more joyned together by a Grammatical Conjunction But 1. § Such Definitions as these sin against the 5th Law of Defining propos'd in the
If Science it is call'd Demonstrative or Apodictical as Cap. 2. Soph. Elench And if Opinion or other Assent besides Science it is called Dialectical c. Ax. 3. So that a Dialectical Syllogism is nothing more than a Syllogism Generating Opinion or any other Assent besides Science Or as Aristotle explains himself Book 1. of his Top. Cap. 1. arguing out of Probables And he is thought the best Dialectick who can best defend his own and dilute or wash away the Opinions of his Adversary c. Ax. 4. And in treating of this sort of Syllogism we are to consider of Questions Propositions and Invention of Arguments Ax. 5. And a Question here may be any thing provided it contradict not Piety good Manners or common Sense 1. § For he that shall call in Question whether God be to be worshipped or Parents Honoured or the Magistrates to be obeyed ought rather to be punished than followed with Dialectical Arguments So he that shaâ—â— doubt whether the Snow be white is not otherwise to be convinc'd than by the Testimony of his outward Sense which he who disbelieves what is iâ— that he will believe c. Ax. 6. So that concerning the Subject of the Dialectical Problemes we need not much to be sollicitous anâ— their Attributes are either of the first or second Notions of which those constitute Real these Notional Problemes c. Ax. 7. A Real is when the Attribute of thâ— Question is real as is a Place a Superficies or so A Notional when a Notional as is Superficies the Gonus of Place or so Because Genus is not a true thing but a second Notion or Logical and only feign in the Mind whereas a Superficies is a true thinâ— and not feign'd in the Mind c. Ax. 8. Real again are either absolute or compared Ax. 9. Absolute that in which sought whether tâ—â— Attribute agrees to the Subject or no. Ax. 10. Compared when two or more Subject being proposed it is asked which the Attribute â—â—grees or disagrees most to or two or more Attributes whether of them agrees more or most to 〈◊〉 Subject c. 1. § For Example When saught whether Glery to be numbered amongst our good things it is an Aâ—solute Probleme when whether Virtue or Glory a most to be desired or Alexander more Valiant or Tâ—â—â—rate a Compared Ax. 11. Problemes Dialectical of what kind soeveâ— may be taken out of all Disciplines whatsoever Ax. 12. Propositions Dialectical are to be true 〈◊〉 least probable not Paradoxal that is against the common or receiv'd Opinion For how shall the Respondent grant that which is against the common or râ—ceiv'd Opinion and which it may be he judges to be false But let us take some Notes from the Learned Hereboord and so end this Chapter Notes and Observations from the Learned Hereboord having Relation to this Chapter 1. A Dialectical Syllogism may also thus be defin'd A Dialectical Syllogism is that which begets Opinion Human Faith or Doubt or any other Assent besides Science or Error which distinguishes it likewise from the Sophistical Syllogism 2. A Syllogism Dialectical is also by another Name called Topical from the Greek Word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Place in Latin Probabilis that is Probable or Contingent because tho' it produces a true yet is it an uncertain and infirm Assent because its Propositions tho' true are yet Contingent as may appear by what is said above 3. When a Paradox is said to be a Probleme true against the common Opinion it is not to be understood only of that of the Unlearned or Vulgar but also of the Multitude of the Lettered who have taken up with Principles Ancient and not so well examined such as that viz. the Earth moves which tho' it be true yet may it be so against the common Opinion and therefore a Paradox 4. A Term of Art signifies no more than this viz. a Term proper to every Art So Metonymy and Synecdoche are Terms of Art viz. Rhetorical Meridian Horizon Zodiac Astronomical Genus and Species Logical c. And this brings us to the next Consideration viz. that CHAP. XVI Of the Invention or finding out of Dialectical Arguments or Topical Places and Rules Ax. 1. NOW to the Invention or finding out of Probable or Dialectical Arguments belong Place and Rule A. 2. A Place is a Seat or certain Common Note by whose Admonition an Argument is found Ax. 3. A Rule a Canon or Proposition containing the Reason of the Consequence of Dialectical Syllogism c. Ax. 4. The Distribution of the Arguments here to be used viz. in Dialectical Disputations is usually into Artificial and Inartificial that is into those of Art to be drawn from the Consideration of the Parts of the Question and Testimonies which are to be found without Now the first Ax. 5. Are to be used for the Confirming or Refelling of all sorts of Problemes alike that is in the same manner being no other than Testimonies But the Artificial not but may be said to be of two sorts viz. those for the Confirming and Refelling of Notional and those for Confirming and Refelling of such as we have call'd real Problemes because concerned about real things Ax. 6. Now those of the first kind viz. for the Confirming and Refelling of Notional Problemes are always taken from the Nature or Propriety of that Affection or 2d Notion concerning which it is query'd in the Probleme 1. § Which or else some Canon belonging to it being placed in the Major an Assumption being made the controverted Affection is prov'd to be in the Subject as because Air is the Subject Matter of Wind we prove it not to be its Genus and because Immortality is the Affection of Life Eternal we prove it not to be its Genus both which Arguments lean upon this Rule viz. That that which is the Subject or Propriety of a thing cannot be its Genus c. given us Cap. 11. of the first Book And so Divines make it appear that good Works are not to be the Cause of our Justification because every cause is before its Effect But good Works are after our Justification and therefore not its Cause And this Argumentation leans upon this Foundation Theoreme 3. Cap. 15. of the first Book viz That every Cause is before it s Caused in Nature and Knowledge c. Such Syllogisms as these Aristotle calls Book 2. Post Cap. 8. Syllogisms Logical that is Notional and the Use of them is very great in all Discipline Ax. 9. Arguments of the other sort viz. for Proving or Refelling of real Problemes are always taken from the Affections belonging to the Nature of the Subject or Predicate as from their Places Ax. 10. Of which those are the best which are taken from the Nature of the Predicate because not sought whether the Subject be but Predicate or whether the Predicate be in the Subject or not c. 1. § Now for Examples of them both suppose any one
That he should be a Man if he has a Rational Soul is requisite and necessary c. Ax. 23. Place from Efficient has two Canons and the first of them is Such as the Cause is such is the Effect c. 1. § And thus God is very good and therefore his Works are so This Canon is deceitful unless cautiously used For first it sails in Causes that are by Accident For neither does it follow that a Son is good because his Father is so nor yet bad For a Son is not produc'd by his Father as he is good or bad but as he is a Man c. And so it fails in Equivocal Causes For it does not follow that the Sun is animated although it animates the World nor that the Whetstone is sharp although it sharpens Iron Lastly in Causes Voluntary when making use of their utmost Endeavours they do something which does not correspond to their Skill or Art As when a Painter paints less elegantly than becomes his Art c. Ax. 24 Secondly That which is the Cause of the Cause is also the Cause of the Caused c. 1. § As Virtue is partly from Nature partly from Institution partly from Custom Virtue is the Cause of civil Happiness And therefore civil Happiness is partly from Nature partly from Institution partly from Custom c. This Canon has Place only in Causes Subordinate of themselves For in Causes Subordinate by Accident it for the most part fails For it does not follow because God is the Cause of our Will and our Will is the Cause of Sin that therefore God is the Cause of Sin c. Ax. 25. Place from the End has this Canon viz. That the End being put there are also put the Means to that End 1. § And so Ovid concludes that Man was made with an upright Countenance because to contemplate the Heavens deeming that to be the End of an upright Figure The Words of the sweet Poet are these Omnia cùm spectent Animalia caetera Terram Os homini sublime dedit Caelùmque tueri Jussit erectos ad sydera tollere Vultus Which admirable Pare-Royal may be rendred in these two sorry Couplets in this manner And whereas other Animals behold With down-cast Looks this Sublunary Mold To Man he gave a stately upright Frame And bad him view those Heav'ns from whence he came Which tho' they fail as to their Versifcation yet may they serve to shew in some measure the Meaning of that memorable Passage of excellent Ovid. Now the Means are often express'd by a Negation of those things which impede the End As the Pupil or Apple of the Eye is to admit all Colours and therefore to be without Colour The Elect must be saved And therefore must not Sin unto Death c. But now tho' the End being put it is necessary that the Means should be so yet that the End not being put they should not be so is not always necessary For it is not necessary that a Man should be destitute of Books and Masters because he is not Learned c. Ax. 26. Now the Place from Caused has four Canons And the first is the Composed posited the Matter and Form must be so too And when that 's taken away the Material Form also must be taken away 1. § And so Plants are living things And therefore they must have a Body and Soul And Stones are not And therefore they must not have a Soul I said Form Material For that the Composed taken away the Matter should be so too Or the Form Immaterial is not necessary For it does not follow that there is no Iron because no Sword or that the Soul of Man is not because he dies c. Ax. 27. Secondly The Effect being posited it follows that either there is a Cause Efficient or else that there has been one 1. § As there is a Building and therefore there is or was an Architect to build it Here are the Footsteps and therefore this Way in all likelihood there has passed some Man c. Ax. 28. Thirdly Such as is the Effect such is the Cause that produc'd it 1. § As this Picture is fine and therefore so must the Artist be that drew it To this are to be added the same Limitations which were added to the first of the Place from Cause Efficient viz the Cautions against Accidentals and Aequivocals because in these Cases this Rule may fail us Ax. 29. Fourthly The Means taken away the End must also be so too 1. § As Stones are not nourished and therefore they do not live Many Men the Gospel will not be Preached to and therefore many Men by means of the Gospel will not be saved c. Ax. 30. The Place from the Subject has this Canon viz. that the Subject being posited the Propriety must also be so too and that taken away the Propriety must also be so too 1. § As Christ is God and therefore he has the Power to forgive Sins The Writings of the Fathers are not the Word of God and therefore they are not of Divine Authority c. Now these Canons without any Limitation are certain and firm Ax. 31. The Place for Adjuncts is of great Extent and has under it Proprieties Objects Signs and Circumstances Now Ax. 32. The Place from Proprieties has two Canons and first that to which the Propriety is given to that also the Subject And that to which the Propriety is not given to that neither the Subject c. 1. § As Christ is Omniscient and therefore he is God Angels fill up no Place and therefore they have not Bodies c. Ax. 33. The Second is that which is said of the Propriety may be also said of the Subject And that which cannot be said of the Propriety that neither of the Subject c. 1. § As a Talkative Person is to be avoided and therefore a Busie-Body or one that is inquisitive into other Peoples Matters A wise Man is not to repose himself upon things of a Fleeting and Transitory Nature and therefore not upon Riches or other Earthly Commodities or Goods c. Ax 34. The Place from Object in the second Place has this Canon viz. That that to which the Object is given to that also the Subject and that to which the Object is not to that neither the Subject c. 1. § As The Doctrine of fallacious Sophisms directs the Mind towards the Knowledge of things and therefore is a Part of Logick Logick has not things necessary for its Object and therefore is not Science c. The Arguments of this Place are very firm if drawn from proper Objects but otherwise only Probable As if one should say thus He talks of Military Affairs and therefore he is a Soldier Of Laws and therefore he is a Lawyer Her Delight is not in Womens Company and therefore she is not a Woman c. Ax. 35. Place from Sign has this Canon viz. Positing the
Ax. 1. NOW Canons Compared are either of certain or else uncertain Place Ax. 2. And the first of these are either General or Special Of which these contain a Comparison in every those only in one certain Genus COMMENTARY 1. § For Example This Canon that whose Effect is more such that it self is more such is of certain Place because it expresses the Place of the Effect from whence this Argument is taken and General because Adaptible to all things which admit of any kind of Comparison But now that that which agrees to the better subject that it self is better is indeed of certain Place because indicating the Argument was fetch'd from the Place of the Subject But not General because only to be adapted to those things which are compared in Goodness But this that which is more lasting is best is of uncertain Place and Special because it neither expresses Where the Place of the Argument is Neither can it be Adapted to all things which are compared amongst themselves c. 1. § Now compared Canons from the Conjugates are these and first that to which one of the Conjugates more agrees to that also the other As Caesar consulted the Republick more than Bibulus and therefore in this respect was more a Consul than he Secondly If one of the Conjugates be better than one then the other of the Conjugates will be better than the other as if Piety be before Learning then a Pious Man will be before a Learned Man c. Thirdly From the Definition these and first that to which the Definition most agrees to that also the Defined as if the Definition of Whiteness be a Colour dispersing the Sight it will follow that that which is whitest disperses the Sight most c. Secondly That which agrees to the Definition that also to the Defined as if a Habit recalling the Affectious of the Mind and Actions to Mediocrity confers more to Felicity than Riches then Virtue confers more to Felicity than Riches c. So from Genus and Species Fourthly we have these as first that which agrees most to the Genus that also to the Species's and that which most to the Species's that also to the Individuals as if a Substance Immaterial be more perspicacious than a Corporeal then the Soul of Man separate will be more perspicacious than it is now when it is in the Body c. Secondly that which is contain'd under the better Genus or Species that also its self is better and so because a living thing is better than a not a Fly will be better than the Heavent c. Fifthly From the Whole and Part we have these as first if the whole Homogenous or whole consisting of Parts of the same Name and Nature be more so than such a Whole then its Part will be more so than such a Part and conrariwise as If Gold be heavier than Brass then it will follow that every Part of Gold observing the same Proportion of Magnitude will be heavier than the like Quantity of Brass c. Secondly that which is absolutely such or effects any thing as such its Whole will be more such and Effect that any thing else be more such than its Part and so if Rhubarb have a Power of Purging Choler then a Drachm will have a greater Power than has a Scruple because it is but the third Part of a Drachm c. Under which general Maxim are contain'd several special as first many Goods are to be preferr'd before fewer and so Virtue with Nobility is to be preferr'd before Virtue alone Secondly that which is Honest Pleasant and Profitable will be beyond that which is only Honest Pleasant or Profitable Thirdly that which encreases or diminishes Good by its Abcess or Access is better than that which neither encreases nor diminishes Good by its Abcess or Access Fourthly by how much more it encreases or diminishes Good by its Absence or Access by so much is it better than any other thing than the which it is better in this Respect c. Fifthly from Matter and Form in the next Place we have these and first that whose Matter is more so that also it self is more so So because Gold is better and more durable than Stone it follows that a Golden Statue is better and more durable than a Stone one c. Secondly that which has a Nobler Form that it self is also Nobler So because the Form of Man is better than that of Beasts because this is Immaterial and Immortal and that Material and Mortal it follows that Man is better than Beasts c. Sixthly From the Cause Efficient these and first that which by it self simply and by its Nature is such is more so than that which by Accident is such or in some respect or by Participation And so Meat as Meat is wholesomer than Physick because that of it self is so and this only by Accident and Light is more Profitable than Darkness because that is useful to all this only to Thieves and such as will abscond Lastly the Sun is more splendid than the Moon because that shines of its own Nature this only by Participation c. Secondly that which of it self and by its own Nature is more such that effects more and so on the Contrary So Fire heats more than Water when it is warm'd because hotter So you know Iron to be heavier than Wood because it more swiftly descends c. This Canon can be used only in Causes of them selves For in Causes by Accident it fails often For Iron red-hot altho' not hotter than Flame burns yet more vehemently the Density of its Matter assisting it and impressing the Heat more strongly upon the Patient and so in other Instances of the like Nature Thirdly that to which the Cause agrees most to that also the Effect and so on the Contrary So you may prove Old Men to be more Prudent than Young because they have more Experience in Things Fourthly that by which any thing is such that it self also must be more such And so because Water grows Warm by Fire it may be collected that the Fire is more Hot than it But this Canon in some Cases will fail us And first in Causes by Accident and Aequivocal For it does not follow that because some one is drunk by Wine that therefore Wine should be more drunk or because the Knife is sharpen'd by the Stone that therefore the Stone should be sharper than the Knife Secondly in Effects which receive not more or less As if you should prove the Father to be more a Man than his Son because the Son is so by his Means Thirdly those which depend not upon one Cause For although the Scholar derive his Learning from his Master yet it does not follow that the Master must be always Learneder than the Scholar For it may be that the Scholar may have more Ingeny and Industry than his Master c. Fifthly those whose Operation Work or Effect
the Argumentation is infirm and begetteth not Science When Subject frivolous and inept For in vain should we prove for Instance that the Pigmies are Cholâ—rick because of their short Stature unless it appears that there are Pigmies c. Of Premisses or Principles also that they are true For otherwise we lay a Foundation of Things that are not known It remains therefore that of the Affection it should be demonstrated that it is and of the whole Conclusion consisting of Subject and Affection that it be true or that the Affection is in the Subject c. Ax. 6. Of which Precognitions those that are self-evident that is so that no body can be ignorant of them are only made in the mind those not so but that they may be unknown are always express'd in the first Entrances of Sciences Ax. 7. And if so soon as produc'd they are believ'd by the Disciple they may be properly term'd Suppositions but if not and the Disciple be doubtful of them or even encline to a contrary Opinion Postulata or things to be required or demanded 1. § There are some things says Aristotle in Sciences of which no one can be ignorant and these they call Suppositions as we said before or Axioms that is such as carry such a Native Clarity with 'em as they are worthy of every body to be credited some of which one may But yet so soon as proposed by a Master are believed without Proof And such as these are termed Definitions And some not so immediately but delivered Precariously and by way as it were of Agreement because the Probation of them if any belongs to the Metaphysicks And such as these they call Postulata or things required or to be demanded c. And so we come to the Conditions which in every Demonstration Why are to be observed and First to those of the Question to be demonstrated and Medium which is to be used in Demonstration CHAP. XXII Of the Question to be demonstrated and Medium which is to be used in Demonstration Ax. 1. THE Conditions which are to be observ'd in Demonstration Why are partly belonging to the Question partly to the Cause or Medium of Demonstration and partly to the Premisses or Principles of which in the Chapter following Ax. 2. Every Question does not admit of a Demonstration Why but only that which is true and has a certain and immutable Cause of its Truth Ax. 3. And therefore neither Propositions immediate nor fortuitous can be demonstrated but only proper Accidents 1. § Now Propositions immediate cannot because they have no Medium or Cause of their Truth 1. § Chance likewise cannot because they have not any Dependance upon any certain Cause or Rule Accidents therefore and those proper only can be demonstrated For Substances have no Cause why they 're in the Subject because they are predicated always as Genus's or Differences And Accidents improper have no certain and definite Cause Now whether these Accidents proper flow from the Essence of the Subject or some External Cause or whether they be perpetual or only frequent it matters not But this that they cohere with their Causes so as that they being put these also be put and that being taken away these also may be taken away is necessary and required For Instance Altho' the Moon be not always deficient yet that she is so when so may be demonstrated because she is always so when the Earth is Diametrically interpos'd between the Sun and the Moon and never so when otherwise c. And so much of the Question to be demonstrated Ax. 4. Now the Medium of Demonstration must be the next Cause of the Predicate and that either Efficient or Final and if Efficient either Internal or External 1. § Now whereas Cause is said to be two Ways next that is either absolutely or in its own Genus In this Place is to be understood the Absolutely next that is such as that being put the Effect also must be put and that taken away the Effect also must be taken away And farther it is required that it be also the Cause of the Predicate For that it be also of the Subject is not so necessary because it is not enquir'd whether the Subject be for that is pre-supposed but whether the Predicate or in plainer Terms whether the Predicate be in the Subject or not c. 2. § This next Cause must be either Efficient or Final because the Predicate being an Accident has not Matter or Form properly so call'd The Cause Final is adhibited in those things which are done for the sake of another As Means Natural Instruments c. Also Actions and Habits if such are to be demonstrated and in other Cases the Efficient It happens sometimes indeed that the Cause Proximate viz. the Efficient is also the Form or Matter of the Subject and when it is so the better But however they differ not in Specie from the rest But these things will appear more by Examples as here 1. Every Rational Creature is capable of Science Every Man is a Rational Creaturâ— Every Man therefore is capable of Science c. In this is the Medium Rational the Cause Efficient Internal of the Predicate and Form of the Subject Here 2. Every Earthly thing is overwhelm'd wiâ—n thrown into the Water An Ebony-Tree is an Earthly thing And therefore every Ebony-Tree is overwhelm'd when thrown into the Water The Cause Efficient Internal and Matter of the Subject Here 3. Whatever consists of Matter and Form has a Three-fold Dimension Every body consists of Matter and Form And therefore every body has a Three-fold Dimension c. Cause Efficient Internal of the Predicate and both Form and Matter of the Subject Here 4. That which is endued with a Three-fold Dimension admits not of another Body's being with it in the same Place But every body is endued with a Three-fold Dimension c. The Cause Efficient Internal of the Predicate and the Propriety of the Subject c. Here viz. 5. That which the Earth being objected cannot be illustrated by the Rays of the Sun that suffers an Ecclipse of the Light receiv'd from the Sun But the Moon the Earth being objected cannot be illustrated with the Rays of the Sun c. The Cause Efficient External of the Predicate Here 6. He who was made for the Contemplation of Celestial Things ought to be of an upright Countenance Man was made for the Contemplation of Celesti-Things And therefore Man ought to be of an upright Countenance The Cause Final and also that of the Predicate c. 3. § Now sometimes it happens that the same Question may be demonstrated by the Cause Efficient together with the Final and so you may demonstrate that an Animal sleeps viz. either because the common Sense is sopited or drown'd by Vapours and the Passage of the External Senses obstructed And this is from the Efficient or else that the Spirits may be refresh'd and Strength
repair'd And this is from the Final c. 4. § Demonstrations Why are not only affirmed but also denied For as we may demonstrate that a Man is capable of Science because endu'd with Reason So also that a Beast is not because not c. For as an Affirmation is the Cause of an Affirmation so must a Negation be the Cause of a Negation c. See Book 1. Post Cap. 13. And so we proceed to the Chapter of the Conditions of the Principles of Demonstration in which we are taught what they ought to to be CHAP. XXIII Of the Conditions of the Principles of Demonstration Ax. 1. THE Conditions of the Principles or Propositions of Demonstrations Why are either Absolute or Related Ax. 2. Absolute are those which agree to the Propositions in themselves consider'd and Related as Compared with the Conclusion Ax. 3. The Absolute are these and first that the Propositions be necessarily true and reciprocal Secondly Immediate and First COMMENTARY True because a False cannot be known and also necessarily because from Propositions not necessary a necessary Conclusion cannot be drawn unless by Chance or Accident 2. § Immediate because if not there would be a Progress to Infinite which is inconsistent with the Nature of Rnowledge Ax. 4. These Two in the Major are required Necessarily but that the Minor supposing it be true should be also Necessary and Immediate is not absolutely Necessary 1. § For the Major is to consist of the Affection and its next Cause which are not only Reciprocated amongst themselves but also necessarily and immediately cohering But the Minor of the Affections Cause and Subject which it is not necessary should so closely cohere as that they should constitute a Necessary Immediate and Reciprocal Proposition since of the Affection not Subject the Knowledge is required c. 2. § Now the Minor is not necessary much less Reciprocal and Universally first when the Medium of the Demonstration is the Cause Efficient External of the Predicate For Example That which with the Rays of the Sun the Earth being objected cannot be illustrated that suffers a Defect of Light receiv'd from the Sun The Moon with the Rays of the Sun the Earth being objected cannot be illustrated And therefore c. In this Demonstration the Minor has no Degree of Necessity because it is not perpetual In Demonstrations from Cause Efficient Internal or Final indeed the Minor is always Necessary but not Reciprocal because often the next and Reciprocal Subject wants a Name For Example Every Plant whose Humour is apt to congeal at the Foot or Stalk of its Leaf is apt to shed its Leaves But the Humour of the Vine is apt to congeal at the Foot or Stalk of its Leaf And therefore the Vine is apt to shed its Leaves c. In which the Minor is not Reciprocal because it happens not only to the Vine to have its Humour congealed but to all other Plants to whom it happens to shed their Leaves But this happens because there is not a proper Name by which should be signify'd All and only those Plants to which the Congelation of the Humours and Fall of the Leaf evenes For the same Reason is it also that the Conclusion is not Reciprocal See Book 1. Post Cap. 5. and Book 2. Cap. 66. 3. § The Minor is not Immediate also when the next Cause of the Predicate has any former Cause by which it may be demonstrated For in all Causes which enter Demonstration there is a certain Series and Subordination so that every Posterior is the Effect of the Precedent As often therefore as any Effect is demonstrated by such a Cause as is the Effect of a former Cause that Minor must necessarily be Mediate and then that Minor is to be resolv'd into that former Cause and so on till you come to the First of that Series which constitutes a Demonstration of both Propositions Immediate And this Demonstration is the Foundation of all the rest which are of the same Series And therefore in searching of Science we are to proceed from the first Demonstration to the following in Synthetic Order and then the Minor Mediate is esteem'd as it were Immediate because now before demonstrated For a Demonstrated Proposition is no less apt to beget Knowledge than a Proposition Immediate and Indemonstrable But yet if any one shall happen upon a Demonstration whose Minor is Mediate he must proceed in Analytic Order towards the first and Fundamental Demonstration Nor will he first have attained Science before he shall have arriv'd at the first Cause For in this the Mind acquiesces But let us add Examples that the Thing may be so much the better understood That which is endu'd with a Three-fold Dimension admits not another Body to be with it at the same time in the same Place All Bodies are endu'd with a Three-fold Dimension And therefore c. The Minor of this Syllogism may be demonstrated in this manner That which consists of Matter and Form is endued with a Three-fold Dimension Every Body consists of Matter and Form And therefore every body c. Now the Minor of this Syllogism is Immediate as well as the Major because to consist of Matter and Form is the Definition of Body c. 4. § The same Series there is in Demonstration from Cause Final in which the Subordinate is demonstrated by the farther End until you shall come to the last in every Genus in which the Mind acquiesces For Example An Animal has Lungs that it may breath breathes that it may refresh the Heart the Heart is to be refresh'd to preserve a Temperature of Heat a Temperature of Heat is to be kept that the Life of the Animal may be preserv'd c. If these Demonstrations be propos'd in Form all excepting the Last will have a Mediate Minor and the Last is the Foundation of all the rest 5. § It sometimes happens that Demonstrations from Cause Efficient cannot be resolv'd into Propositions Mediate unless the Demonstration from Cause Final be commixt with the Demonstrations from Cause Efficient For Example A Man is of a most Acute Touch because he is of a very thin Skin a thin Skin because having abundance of Elaborated Animal Spirits abundance of those Elaborated Animal Spirits because having a very large Brain the Shop or Office of those Elaborated Animal Spirits Hitherto are they all Causes Efficient That a Man has a very large Brain is to be demonstrated from the End to wit because he should reason that Man should reason again from Cause Efficient to wit because he is a Rational Animal Here now we acquiesce because the Minor is the Definition of Man and therefore Immediate and Indemonstrable Ax 5. The Conditions of Principles relating to the Conclusion are Three And first that they be the Causes Secondly Prior to and Thirdly more known than the Conclusion Ax. 6. And these Conditions are required in both Propositions 1. § For as is the
Medium of Demonstration 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 with respect to the Question to be demonstrated so are the Principles or Premisses to the Conclusion Wherefore as the Medium is the Cause of the Affection so the Principles are the Cause not only why the Conclusion is known For in this Sense the Principles are the Cause even in all Syllogisms but also why they are true And as the Medium is before the Affection not in time but Nature So also the Principles obtain a Verity not in Time but Nature prior to that of the Conclusion Lastly as the Medium is more known than the Affection not as to us and in way of confus'd Knowledge but of Nature and distinct Cognition So also the Principles are more known than the Conclusion For because we embrace the Conclusion with a full Assent of the Mind for the sake of the Principles we must assent more to the Principles themselves of Necessity because that for the sake of which any thing is such that it self is more such as Aristotle teaches Book 1. Post Cap. 2. c. Ax. 7. Now when the Principles have all these Conditions they are proper to the Thing to be demonstrated Ax. 8. Principles are said to be proper to the thing to be demonstrated when they are neither Heterogeneous or Foreign nor yet Common 1. § Now Principles are said to be Heterogeneous then when they are fetch'd from some other Science As if one for the proving of Physical Questions should make use of Mathematical Principles or Geometrical Arithmetical But it is not lawful for a Demonstrater to pass from one Science to another to wit because the Medium with the Third that is the Subject and the First that is the Predicate with the Medium ought to agree by it self as is taught Cap. 6. of the same Book which cannot be if the the Conclusion and Principles are not of the same Genus or Subject that is of the same Science For that is said to be of the same Science which is of the same Genus or Subject as appears from Cap. 28. of the same Book 2. § If yet one Science be Subalternate to another as Musick to Arithmetick or Optick to Geometry The Questions of the Inferiour are to be demonstrated by the Principles of the Superiour Science Nor is this a passing to another Genus because the Subalternated Science has in some manner the same Subject with the Superiour and so they are not to be esteemed divers Sciences I said in some manner because the Subalternated Science considers the Subject of the Superiour with some sensible Quality which yet appertains not to the formal Ratio of the Subject From whence it is that the Affections of both are diverse tho' in the rest they consent So Arithmetick considers Number absolutely Musick which is Subalternated to it only in â—ound So Geometry considers Magnitude absolutely The Optick or Science discussing the Reasons of Sight which is subalternate or inferiour to it only in Colour Light and Shadow See Cap. 7. of the fore-cited Book 3. § The Principles Common are those which may be accommodated to many Sciences Such Principles as these generate not Science because they contain a Medium which coheres not with the Part of the Question by it self but Accident But it is then that we know a Thing truly when we know it so far as it is in the Subject and that from Principles which are such as it is that which it is as Aristotle speaks Cap 9. of the same Book But that which we know from common Reasons we know only by Accident c. It is not yet to be thought that the Principles of Sciences are Common which when of the Superiour are adhibited to the Inferiour Science because the Science Subalternate as has been said before is not esteem'd diverse from the Subalternating c. Ax. 9. Now Principles are divided into Axioms and Thesis's Ax. 10. And an Axiom is that the Truth of which knowing only the Signification of the Words no Person can be ignorant of Ax. 11. A Thesis whose Truth is not known by the meer Signification of the Words only but by the Judgment of the Senses or some other way of Declaration Ax. 12. And this is either Definition or Hypothesis Ax. 13. A Definition is an Oration as we have observed before in which we declare what a Thing is An Hypothesis whether it be in Being or no c. This Division of the Principles is fetch'd from Book 1. Post Cap. 2. and 10. Whence Axiom is so call'd is declar'd Book 1 of the Institutions Cap. 27. The Word Thesis is sometimes taken for any Proposition which is proposed Pro and Con to be disputed of as Book 8. Top. Cap. 4. and 5. and sometimes for a Sentence Paradoxal of some eminent Philosopher as Book 1. Top. Cap. 1. In Rhetorick it is taken for an infinite Question but here for a kind of Proposition Immediate Now 2. § Aristotle Cap. 10. of the fore-cited Book defines an Axiom in this manner viz. to be that which of necessity is true of it self and of the like Necessity must seem so Of Necessity true that is worthy of it self of our Belief or that that has no Cause of its Truth by which to be demonstrated And this is Common to all as well Thesis's as Axioms Adds of Necessity must seem so that is by a Person of compleat Reason It cannot seriously and with the Consent of his Mind be deny'd For a Person perchance may deny an Axiom rather than confess himself to be overcome but no one can be found who supposing him of a compleat Reason can deny it in his Soul and Mind For Example such Enunciations as these Nothing can at the same time be and also not be The whole is greater than its Part Those things that are equal to the same those also will be equal amongst themselves If from equal things you take away equal those things which remain will be equal too c. The Evidence of which is so great that knowing only the Signification of the Words by which they are express'd the Truth of them cannot but be apparent For he who knows what signifies a Whole and what a Part and what to be greater cannot be ignorant that a Whole is greater than a Part c. 3. § And in this respect differ Axioms from Thesis's For to the Knowledge of Thesis's besides the Knowledge of the Signification of Words is requir'd the Judgment of the Senses and sometimes the Declaration of a Master Of Definitions Examples may be taken out of every Discipline As for Instance Physick As a Body Natural is that which consists of Matter and Form Principles are those which are neither made out of themselves nor others and out of which are made all things Nature 's the Principle and Cause of Motion and Quiet in that in which it is first by its self and not by Accident c. Geometry As that
The Minor must not be denyed in the first Figure Or which returns to the same Account viz. From the Remotion of the Antecedent can't be inferr'd that of the Consequent as we observ'd Chapter the 12th in that Part relating to Hypothetical Syllogism The Fourth is That One of the Premisses must be denyed in the Second Figure Or which is the same thing the Position of the Antecedent ought not to be concluded from that of the Consequent as we have observ'd again in the same Chapter And therefore these sorts of Syllogisms will be Paralogisms viz. Every Man is an Animal A Horse is not a Man And therefore not an Animal Or thus If a Horse be a Man he is an Animal But a Horse is not a Man And therefore not an Animal c. Likewise Every Flatterer is Complaisant Such an One is Complaisant And therefore such an One is a Flatterer Or thus If Crispus be a Flatterer he is Complaisant But he is Complaisant And therefore a Flatterer c. If any one be deceiv'd by these sorts of Argumentations either from himself or others as it often happens he is then deceiv'd by a Fallacy of the Consequent 2. But because the Fault of a false Consequence is easily discernible in these sorts of Syllogisms Sophisters usually conceal it either by suppressing one of the Premisses As Crispus is Complaisant And therefore a Flatterer Walks by Night And therefore a Thief Or else by Circumlocution As he that says you are an Animal says true He that says you are an Ass says you are an Animal And therefore he that says you are an Ass says true For this Argumentation is just as if one should lay down this Position viz. You are an Animal An Ass is an Animal And therefore you are an Ass Which is an Argumentation contrary to Rule Of two Affirmatives in the second Figure Ax. 11. Which is solv'd by shewing that the Medium is not diverse from the Question or at least more known than it Ax. 10. The Sophism of Begging the Question is then when any thing is proved either by it self or something that is equally unknown with it self 1. § This is call'd a Begging of the Principle because it is a Begging of that which in the Beginning was sought for These Sort of Catches may be two ways laid And First when the same thing is prov'd by it self Secondly when one unknown thing is proved by another that is equally unknown with it self The same thing is said to be prov'd by it self when the Subject or Predicate of the Question the Name being chang'd is brought in for a Medium to prove the Question As if any one should prove the Soul of Man to be ex Traduce English of the Seed of the Parent because begotten by the Seed of the Parent I say the Subject or Predicate changing the Name For if the Name were not changed the Argumentation would be mere Child's Play And yet for all this every Argumentation in which the Medium is the same with the Subject or Predicate of the Question is not to be rejected as a Sophism but only that whose Medium is not only in it self and of its own Nature the same with the Question but also as to us as in that which we proposed above But if the Medium be of its own Nature the same as the Question but not also as to us or our Manner of Concetpion the Argumentation is not to be rejected Unless you can suppose all the Arguments which are fetch'd from Essential Places As Genus Species Definition Whole and Part to make Captious Argumentations c. 2. Secondly The second Way is when the Medium's as much unknown as the Question it self As if one should prove Vision to be made by Emission because not by Reception Now this Sophism tends to this Partly that the Sophister may seem to abound with Arguments partly that changing the Forms of the Words he may conciliate a Shew of Probability to his Declarations Ax. 11. Sophism of not Cause for the Cause is then when that which is not the Cause or by Accident is obtruded for the true Cause and that by it self Ax. 12. And this Sophism is solv'd by the Designation of the true Cause upon which the Effect by it self depends 1. § The Caption of not Cause for the Cause either lies in a Syllogism that leads to Inconvenience or direct In a Syllogism that leads to Inconvenience when the Falsity of the Conclusion brought is imputed to one of the Premisses which is not the Cause of it As if one designing to prove the Humane Soul Mortal should thus argue Every Immortal is Eternal The Soul of Man is Immortal And therefore the Soul of Man is Eternal But this Conclusion is false and the Occasion of it was in the Minor which was that the Soul of Man was Immortal And therefore Mortal For this Argumentation is a Sophism of the not Cause for the Cause For he says that this Proposition The Soul is Immortal is the Cause of a false Conclusion when it was that viz. That every Immortal is Eternal In a Syllogism direct when that which is attributed to the Cause by Accident happens not but to the Causes by themselves As Religion excites Civil Wars From the Reading of the Sacred Scriptures spring Hresies Wine is heady and intoxicates c. And therefore Religion Reading of the Sacred Scriptures and Wine are not to be tolerated in any Common-Wealth c. Ax. 13. The Sophism of many Interrogations is then when two or more Questions are so proposed as that they shew only but as One. Ax. 14. And these sorts of Sophisms are brought about two manner of Ways And first when two Subjects or two Predicates or perhaps more are propounded under so many distinct sort of Names as is the World Eternal and Perfect c. This is a Captious Interrogation For if you answer Affirmatively the Sophister will set upon you as if you had grantted that the World was Eternal and if otherwise he excepts against you as if you deny'd that the World was perfect And secondly you may make a Fallacy of many Interrogations in one Word As Desistine c. Have you left off to commit Adultery Have you lost your Horns c. But enough of this is said in the Place of Homonymy And thus much may suffice for Syllogism The Last of the Four Instruments is that which now demands our Attendance And that is Method Of which we shall entreat in the following Chapter CHAP. XXVIII Of Method Ax. 1. THere remains yet Order or Method to be entreated of And that is an apt Disposition of Things belonging to the same Head so as that they may be the best and most easily understood and the most firmly imprinted upon the Memory Ax. 2. For which End we are ever to set those things before which conduce to the Knowledge of the Following At least are better understood than they Ax. 3. Now