If Science it is call'd Demonstrative or Apodictical as Cap. 2. Soph. Elench And if Opinion or other Assent besides Science it is called Dialectical c. Ax. 3. So that a Dialectical Syllogism is nothing more than a Syllogism Generating Opinion or any other Assent besides Science Or as Aristotle explains himself Book 1. of his Top. Cap. 1. arguing out of Probables And he is thought the best Dialectick who can best defend his own and dilute or wash away the Opinions of his Adversary c. Ax. 4. And in treating of this sort of Syllogism we are to consider of Questions Propositions and Invention of Arguments Ax. 5. And a Question here may be any thing provided it contradict not Piety good Manners or common Sense 1. § For he that shall call in Question whether God be to be worshipped or Parents Honoured or the Magistrates to be obeyed ought rather to be punished than followed with Dialectical Arguments So he that shaâ—â— doubt whether the Snow be white is not otherwise to be convinc'd than by the Testimony of his outward Sense which he who disbelieves what is iâ— that he will believe c. Ax. 6. So that concerning the Subject of the Dialectical Problemes we need not much to be sollicitous anâ— their Attributes are either of the first or second Notions of which those constitute Real these Notional Problemes c. Ax. 7. A Real is when the Attribute of thâ— Question is real as is a Place a Superficies or so A Notional when a Notional as is Superficies the Gonus of Place or so Because Genus is not a true thing but a second Notion or Logical and only feign in the Mind whereas a Superficies is a true thinâ— and not feign'd in the Mind c. Ax. 8. Real again are either absolute or compared Ax. 9. Absolute that in which sought whether tâ—â— Attribute agrees to the Subject or no. Ax. 10. Compared when two or more Subject being proposed it is asked which the Attribute â—â—grees or disagrees most to or two or more Attributes whether of them agrees more or most to 〈◊〉 Subject c. 1. § For Example When saught whether Glery to be numbered amongst our good things it is an Aâ—solute Probleme when whether Virtue or Glory a most to be desired or Alexander more Valiant or Tâ—â—â—rate a Compared Ax. 11. Problemes Dialectical of what kind soeveâ— may be taken out of all Disciplines whatsoever Ax. 12. Propositions Dialectical are to be true 〈◊〉 least probable not Paradoxal that is against the common or receiv'd Opinion For how shall the Respondent grant that which is against the common or râ—ceiv'd Opinion and which it may be he judges to be false But let us take some Notes from the Learned Hereboord and so end this Chapter Notes and Observations from the Learned Hereboord having Relation to this Chapter 1. A Dialectical Syllogism may also thus be defin'd A Dialectical Syllogism is that which begets Opinion Human Faith or Doubt or any other Assent besides Science or Error which distinguishes it likewise from the Sophistical Syllogism 2. A Syllogism Dialectical is also by another Name called Topical from the Greek Word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Place in Latin Probabilis that is Probable or Contingent because tho' it produces a true yet is it an uncertain and infirm Assent because its Propositions tho' true are yet Contingent as may appear by what is said above 3. When a Paradox is said to be a Probleme true against the common Opinion it is not to be understood only of that of the Unlearned or Vulgar but also of the Multitude of the Lettered who have taken up with Principles Ancient and not so well examined such as that viz. the Earth moves which tho' it be true yet may it be so against the common Opinion and therefore a Paradox 4. A Term of Art signifies no more than this viz. a Term proper to every Art So Metonymy and Synecdoche are Terms of Art viz. Rhetorical Meridian Horizon Zodiac Astronomical Genus and Species Logical c. And this brings us to the next Consideration viz. that CHAP. XVI Of the Invention or finding out of Dialectical Arguments or Topical Places and Rules Ax. 1. NOW to the Invention or finding out of Probable or Dialectical Arguments belong Place and Rule A. 2. A Place is a Seat or certain Common Note by whose Admonition an Argument is found Ax. 3. A Rule a Canon or Proposition containing the Reason of the Consequence of Dialectical Syllogism c. Ax. 4. The Distribution of the Arguments here to be used viz. in Dialectical Disputations is usually into Artificial and Inartificial that is into those of Art to be drawn from the Consideration of the Parts of the Question and Testimonies which are to be found without Now the first Ax. 5. Are to be used for the Confirming or Refelling of all sorts of Problemes alike that is in the same manner being no other than Testimonies But the Artificial not but may be said to be of two sorts viz. those for the Confirming and Refelling of Notional and those for Confirming and Refelling of such as we have call'd real Problemes because concerned about real things Ax. 6. Now those of the first kind viz. for the Confirming and Refelling of Notional Problemes are always taken from the Nature or Propriety of that Affection or 2d Notion concerning which it is query'd in the Probleme 1. § Which or else some Canon belonging to it being placed in the Major an Assumption being made the controverted Affection is prov'd to be in the Subject as because Air is the Subject Matter of Wind we prove it not to be its Genus and because Immortality is the Affection of Life Eternal we prove it not to be its Genus both which Arguments lean upon this Rule viz. That that which is the Subject or Propriety of a thing cannot be its Genus c. given us Cap. 11. of the first Book And so Divines make it appear that good Works are not to be the Cause of our Justification because every cause is before its Effect But good Works are after our Justification and therefore not its Cause And this Argumentation leans upon this Foundation Theoreme 3. Cap. 15. of the first Book viz That every Cause is before it s Caused in Nature and Knowledge c. Such Syllogisms as these Aristotle calls Book 2. Post Cap. 8. Syllogisms Logical that is Notional and the Use of them is very great in all Discipline Ax. 9. Arguments of the other sort viz. for Proving or Refelling of real Problemes are always taken from the Affections belonging to the Nature of the Subject or Predicate as from their Places Ax. 10. Of which those are the best which are taken from the Nature of the Predicate because not sought whether the Subject be but Predicate or whether the Predicate be in the Subject or not c. 1. § Now for Examples of them both suppose any one
That he should be a Man if he has a Rational Soul is requisite and necessary c. Ax. 23. Place from Efficient has two Canons and the first of them is Such as the Cause is such is the Effect c. 1. § And thus God is very good and therefore his Works are so This Canon is deceitful unless cautiously used For first it sails in Causes that are by Accident For neither does it follow that a Son is good because his Father is so nor yet bad For a Son is not produc'd by his Father as he is good or bad but as he is a Man c. And so it fails in Equivocal Causes For it does not follow that the Sun is animated although it animates the World nor that the Whetstone is sharp although it sharpens Iron Lastly in Causes Voluntary when making use of their utmost Endeavours they do something which does not correspond to their Skill or Art As when a Painter paints less elegantly than becomes his Art c. Ax. 24 Secondly That which is the Cause of the Cause is also the Cause of the Caused c. 1. § As Virtue is partly from Nature partly from Institution partly from Custom Virtue is the Cause of civil Happiness And therefore civil Happiness is partly from Nature partly from Institution partly from Custom c. This Canon has Place only in Causes Subordinate of themselves For in Causes Subordinate by Accident it for the most part fails For it does not follow because God is the Cause of our Will and our Will is the Cause of Sin that therefore God is the Cause of Sin c. Ax. 25. Place from the End has this Canon viz. That the End being put there are also put the Means to that End 1. § And so Ovid concludes that Man was made with an upright Countenance because to contemplate the Heavens deeming that to be the End of an upright Figure The Words of the sweet Poet are these Omnia cùm spectent Animalia caetera Terram Os homini sublime dedit Caelùmque tueri Jussit erectos ad sydera tollere Vultus Which admirable Pare-Royal may be rendred in these two sorry Couplets in this manner And whereas other Animals behold With down-cast Looks this Sublunary Mold To Man he gave a stately upright Frame And bad him view those Heav'ns from whence he came Which tho' they fail as to their Versifcation yet may they serve to shew in some measure the Meaning of that memorable Passage of excellent Ovid. Now the Means are often express'd by a Negation of those things which impede the End As the Pupil or Apple of the Eye is to admit all Colours and therefore to be without Colour The Elect must be saved And therefore must not Sin unto Death c. But now tho' the End being put it is necessary that the Means should be so yet that the End not being put they should not be so is not always necessary For it is not necessary that a Man should be destitute of Books and Masters because he is not Learned c. Ax. 26. Now the Place from Caused has four Canons And the first is the Composed posited the Matter and Form must be so too And when that 's taken away the Material Form also must be taken away 1. § And so Plants are living things And therefore they must have a Body and Soul And Stones are not And therefore they must not have a Soul I said Form Material For that the Composed taken away the Matter should be so too Or the Form Immaterial is not necessary For it does not follow that there is no Iron because no Sword or that the Soul of Man is not because he dies c. Ax. 27. Secondly The Effect being posited it follows that either there is a Cause Efficient or else that there has been one 1. § As there is a Building and therefore there is or was an Architect to build it Here are the Footsteps and therefore this Way in all likelihood there has passed some Man c. Ax. 28. Thirdly Such as is the Effect such is the Cause that produc'd it 1. § As this Picture is fine and therefore so must the Artist be that drew it To this are to be added the same Limitations which were added to the first of the Place from Cause Efficient viz the Cautions against Accidentals and Aequivocals because in these Cases this Rule may fail us Ax. 29. Fourthly The Means taken away the End must also be so too 1. § As Stones are not nourished and therefore they do not live Many Men the Gospel will not be Preached to and therefore many Men by means of the Gospel will not be saved c. Ax. 30. The Place from the Subject has this Canon viz. that the Subject being posited the Propriety must also be so too and that taken away the Propriety must also be so too 1. § As Christ is God and therefore he has the Power to forgive Sins The Writings of the Fathers are not the Word of God and therefore they are not of Divine Authority c. Now these Canons without any Limitation are certain and firm Ax. 31. The Place for Adjuncts is of great Extent and has under it Proprieties Objects Signs and Circumstances Now Ax. 32. The Place from Proprieties has two Canons and first that to which the Propriety is given to that also the Subject And that to which the Propriety is not given to that neither the Subject c. 1. § As Christ is Omniscient and therefore he is God Angels fill up no Place and therefore they have not Bodies c. Ax. 33. The Second is that which is said of the Propriety may be also said of the Subject And that which cannot be said of the Propriety that neither of the Subject c. 1. § As a Talkative Person is to be avoided and therefore a Busie-Body or one that is inquisitive into other Peoples Matters A wise Man is not to repose himself upon things of a Fleeting and Transitory Nature and therefore not upon Riches or other Earthly Commodities or Goods c. Ax 34. The Place from Object in the second Place has this Canon viz. That that to which the Object is given to that also the Subject and that to which the Object is not to that neither the Subject c. 1. § As The Doctrine of fallacious Sophisms directs the Mind towards the Knowledge of things and therefore is a Part of Logick Logick has not things necessary for its Object and therefore is not Science c. The Arguments of this Place are very firm if drawn from proper Objects but otherwise only Probable As if one should say thus He talks of Military Affairs and therefore he is a Soldier Of Laws and therefore he is a Lawyer Her Delight is not in Womens Company and therefore she is not a Woman c. Ax. 35. Place from Sign has this Canon viz. Positing the
Ax. 1. NOW Canons Compared are either of certain or else uncertain Place Ax. 2. And the first of these are either General or Special Of which these contain a Comparison in every those only in one certain Genus COMMENTARY 1. § For Example This Canon that whose Effect is more such that it self is more such is of certain Place because it expresses the Place of the Effect from whence this Argument is taken and General because Adaptible to all things which admit of any kind of Comparison But now that that which agrees to the better subject that it self is better is indeed of certain Place because indicating the Argument was fetch'd from the Place of the Subject But not General because only to be adapted to those things which are compared in Goodness But this that which is more lasting is best is of uncertain Place and Special because it neither expresses Where the Place of the Argument is Neither can it be Adapted to all things which are compared amongst themselves c. 1. § Now compared Canons from the Conjugates are these and first that to which one of the Conjugates more agrees to that also the other As Caesar consulted the Republick more than Bibulus and therefore in this respect was more a Consul than he Secondly If one of the Conjugates be better than one then the other of the Conjugates will be better than the other as if Piety be before Learning then a Pious Man will be before a Learned Man c. Thirdly From the Definition these and first that to which the Definition most agrees to that also the Defined as if the Definition of Whiteness be a Colour dispersing the Sight it will follow that that which is whitest disperses the Sight most c. Secondly That which agrees to the Definition that also to the Defined as if a Habit recalling the Affectious of the Mind and Actions to Mediocrity confers more to Felicity than Riches then Virtue confers more to Felicity than Riches c. So from Genus and Species Fourthly we have these as first that which agrees most to the Genus that also to the Species's and that which most to the Species's that also to the Individuals as if a Substance Immaterial be more perspicacious than a Corporeal then the Soul of Man separate will be more perspicacious than it is now when it is in the Body c. Secondly that which is contain'd under the better Genus or Species that also its self is better and so because a living thing is better than a not a Fly will be better than the Heavent c. Fifthly From the Whole and Part we have these as first if the whole Homogenous or whole consisting of Parts of the same Name and Nature be more so than such a Whole then its Part will be more so than such a Part and conrariwise as If Gold be heavier than Brass then it will follow that every Part of Gold observing the same Proportion of Magnitude will be heavier than the like Quantity of Brass c. Secondly that which is absolutely such or effects any thing as such its Whole will be more such and Effect that any thing else be more such than its Part and so if Rhubarb have a Power of Purging Choler then a Drachm will have a greater Power than has a Scruple because it is but the third Part of a Drachm c. Under which general Maxim are contain'd several special as first many Goods are to be preferr'd before fewer and so Virtue with Nobility is to be preferr'd before Virtue alone Secondly that which is Honest Pleasant and Profitable will be beyond that which is only Honest Pleasant or Profitable Thirdly that which encreases or diminishes Good by its Abcess or Access is better than that which neither encreases nor diminishes Good by its Abcess or Access Fourthly by how much more it encreases or diminishes Good by its Absence or Access by so much is it better than any other thing than the which it is better in this Respect c. Fifthly from Matter and Form in the next Place we have these and first that whose Matter is more so that also it self is more so So because Gold is better and more durable than Stone it follows that a Golden Statue is better and more durable than a Stone one c. Secondly that which has a Nobler Form that it self is also Nobler So because the Form of Man is better than that of Beasts because this is Immaterial and Immortal and that Material and Mortal it follows that Man is better than Beasts c. Sixthly From the Cause Efficient these and first that which by it self simply and by its Nature is such is more so than that which by Accident is such or in some respect or by Participation And so Meat as Meat is wholesomer than Physick because that of it self is so and this only by Accident and Light is more Profitable than Darkness because that is useful to all this only to Thieves and such as will abscond Lastly the Sun is more splendid than the Moon because that shines of its own Nature this only by Participation c. Secondly that which of it self and by its own Nature is more such that effects more and so on the Contrary So Fire heats more than Water when it is warm'd because hotter So you know Iron to be heavier than Wood because it more swiftly descends c. This Canon can be used only in Causes of them selves For in Causes by Accident it fails often For Iron red-hot altho' not hotter than Flame burns yet more vehemently the Density of its Matter assisting it and impressing the Heat more strongly upon the Patient and so in other Instances of the like Nature Thirdly that to which the Cause agrees most to that also the Effect and so on the Contrary So you may prove Old Men to be more Prudent than Young because they have more Experience in Things Fourthly that by which any thing is such that it self also must be more such And so because Water grows Warm by Fire it may be collected that the Fire is more Hot than it But this Canon in some Cases will fail us And first in Causes by Accident and Aequivocal For it does not follow that because some one is drunk by Wine that therefore Wine should be more drunk or because the Knife is sharpen'd by the Stone that therefore the Stone should be sharper than the Knife Secondly in Effects which receive not more or less As if you should prove the Father to be more a Man than his Son because the Son is so by his Means Thirdly those which depend not upon one Cause For although the Scholar derive his Learning from his Master yet it does not follow that the Master must be always Learneder than the Scholar For it may be that the Scholar may have more Ingeny and Industry than his Master c. Fifthly those whose Operation Work or Effect
The Minor must not be denyed in the first Figure Or which returns to the same Account viz. From the Remotion of the Antecedent can't be inferr'd that of the Consequent as we observ'd Chapter the 12th in that Part relating to Hypothetical Syllogism The Fourth is That One of the Premisses must be denyed in the Second Figure Or which is the same thing the Position of the Antecedent ought not to be concluded from that of the Consequent as we have observ'd again in the same Chapter And therefore these sorts of Syllogisms will be Paralogisms viz. Every Man is an Animal A Horse is not a Man And therefore not an Animal Or thus If a Horse be a Man he is an Animal But a Horse is not a Man And therefore not an Animal c. Likewise Every Flatterer is Complaisant Such an One is Complaisant And therefore such an One is a Flatterer Or thus If Crispus be a Flatterer he is Complaisant But he is Complaisant And therefore a Flatterer c. If any one be deceiv'd by these sorts of Argumentations either from himself or others as it often happens he is then deceiv'd by a Fallacy of the Consequent 2. But because the Fault of a false Consequence is easily discernible in these sorts of Syllogisms Sophisters usually conceal it either by suppressing one of the Premisses As Crispus is Complaisant And therefore a Flatterer Walks by Night And therefore a Thief Or else by Circumlocution As he that says you are an Animal says true He that says you are an Ass says you are an Animal And therefore he that says you are an Ass says true For this Argumentation is just as if one should lay down this Position viz. You are an Animal An Ass is an Animal And therefore you are an Ass Which is an Argumentation contrary to Rule Of two Affirmatives in the second Figure Ax. 11. Which is solv'd by shewing that the Medium is not diverse from the Question or at least more known than it Ax. 10. The Sophism of Begging the Question is then when any thing is proved either by it self or something that is equally unknown with it self 1. § This is call'd a Begging of the Principle because it is a Begging of that which in the Beginning was sought for These Sort of Catches may be two ways laid And First when the same thing is prov'd by it self Secondly when one unknown thing is proved by another that is equally unknown with it self The same thing is said to be prov'd by it self when the Subject or Predicate of the Question the Name being chang'd is brought in for a Medium to prove the Question As if any one should prove the Soul of Man to be ex Traduce English of the Seed of the Parent because begotten by the Seed of the Parent I say the Subject or Predicate changing the Name For if the Name were not changed the Argumentation would be mere Child's Play And yet for all this every Argumentation in which the Medium is the same with the Subject or Predicate of the Question is not to be rejected as a Sophism but only that whose Medium is not only in it self and of its own Nature the same with the Question but also as to us as in that which we proposed above But if the Medium be of its own Nature the same as the Question but not also as to us or our Manner of Concetpion the Argumentation is not to be rejected Unless you can suppose all the Arguments which are fetch'd from Essential Places As Genus Species Definition Whole and Part to make Captious Argumentations c. 2. Secondly The second Way is when the Medium's as much unknown as the Question it self As if one should prove Vision to be made by Emission because not by Reception Now this Sophism tends to this Partly that the Sophister may seem to abound with Arguments partly that changing the Forms of the Words he may conciliate a Shew of Probability to his Declarations Ax. 11. Sophism of not Cause for the Cause is then when that which is not the Cause or by Accident is obtruded for the true Cause and that by it self Ax. 12. And this Sophism is solv'd by the Designation of the true Cause upon which the Effect by it self depends 1. § The Caption of not Cause for the Cause either lies in a Syllogism that leads to Inconvenience or direct In a Syllogism that leads to Inconvenience when the Falsity of the Conclusion brought is imputed to one of the Premisses which is not the Cause of it As if one designing to prove the Humane Soul Mortal should thus argue Every Immortal is Eternal The Soul of Man is Immortal And therefore the Soul of Man is Eternal But this Conclusion is false and the Occasion of it was in the Minor which was that the Soul of Man was Immortal And therefore Mortal For this Argumentation is a Sophism of the not Cause for the Cause For he says that this Proposition The Soul is Immortal is the Cause of a false Conclusion when it was that viz. That every Immortal is Eternal In a Syllogism direct when that which is attributed to the Cause by Accident happens not but to the Causes by themselves As Religion excites Civil Wars From the Reading of the Sacred Scriptures spring Hresies Wine is heady and intoxicates c. And therefore Religion Reading of the Sacred Scriptures and Wine are not to be tolerated in any Common-Wealth c. Ax. 13. The Sophism of many Interrogations is then when two or more Questions are so proposed as that they shew only but as One. Ax. 14. And these sorts of Sophisms are brought about two manner of Ways And first when two Subjects or two Predicates or perhaps more are propounded under so many distinct sort of Names as is the World Eternal and Perfect c. This is a Captious Interrogation For if you answer Affirmatively the Sophister will set upon you as if you had grantted that the World was Eternal and if otherwise he excepts against you as if you deny'd that the World was perfect And secondly you may make a Fallacy of many Interrogations in one Word As Desistine c. Have you left off to commit Adultery Have you lost your Horns c. But enough of this is said in the Place of Homonymy And thus much may suffice for Syllogism The Last of the Four Instruments is that which now demands our Attendance And that is Method Of which we shall entreat in the following Chapter CHAP. XXVIII Of Method Ax. 1. THere remains yet Order or Method to be entreated of And that is an apt Disposition of Things belonging to the same Head so as that they may be the best and most easily understood and the most firmly imprinted upon the Memory Ax. 2. For which End we are ever to set those things before which conduce to the Knowledge of the Following At least are better understood than they Ax. 3. Now