Horizon but oblique Yet it is not general that the wind proceedeth in a perpendicular way to the Horizon because that oftentimes in the Air transverse Blasts are found So we see that Smoak coming forth of a Chimney is not carried by the wind towards one quarter but part of it is carried unto other quarters Proposition XII Why the Winds blow by an interrupted force so that sometimes they cease and other some as it were with redoubled strength they return with the greater importunity And why that they seem more continually to blow on the Sea so that it is discovered less calm The Winds 〈◊〉 blow by an interrupted force I suppose the reason to be that the cause that moveth or stirreth up the Winds continueth not always but that some space is required unto the collection of such a quantity which by such a vehemency may break through the Air and therefore because that Exhalations are more continual in the Air and the motion is less impeded there the calm in the Ocean is less discovered although that it be not wholly removed Proposition XIII Why no Wind bloweth perpendicularly from the Air unto the places of the Earth Concerning this question See Aristotle lib. 2. chap. 9. of Meteors Aristotle in his Second Book Chap. 9. of Meteors treateth very absurdly so that the Peripateticks are not agreeing concerning his Opinion neither shall I in this place relate their Sentiments The cause seemeth easily to be explained viz. that the Air being thrust downwards towards the Center of the Earth cannot break through this way by reason that other vapours are expelled or born upwards and therefore the overmuch resistance of the Air which is directly scituated under the Air moved causeth the protrusion to be made to the sides of the place in which the violence beginneth Which is therefore the more probable seeing that the matter of the Wind is for the most part more light than that Air and that is more rarified than that which is more near unto the Earth Proposition XIV Why Westerly-winds are less frequent than Easterly-winds See Proposition 10. The cause of this is manifest from the Tenth Proposition where we have made the Sun to be the first cause of Winds who so rarifieth the Air proceeding from the East to the West and therefore the Air is more thrust towards the West Therefore that this general cause may be impeded of necessity very many Exhalations must consist in the Western quarters which doth happen less frequently Proposition XV. Why the Northern and Eastern-winds are more impetuous and stormy and on the contrary the Southern and Western more relaxed and weak The Northern and Eastern Winds more stormy than the Southern and VVestern The cause is by reason that the Northern Air is more thick by reason of Cold and the Southern in our Zone by reason of the greater dissipation caused by the Sun and Heat is more rarified Now by how much the Air is more rarified by so much the lesser is it carried with an impetuous force Yet you must know that the South-winds are cold dry and violent in the Temperate Zone or the Artick Zone opposed to ours no less than the Northern-winds are unto us but the Eastern-wind is more rigid or more intense for another cause viz. because that it ariseth for the most part from the refraction of the Air made by the Sun which being continually carried from the East to the West the Air also is thrust forwards with the greater violence from the East to the West But it is probable that other causes may accede that may either help or obstruct that violence Proposition XVI Why the Southernly and Westernly-winds are found more hot than the Easternly and Northernly which have a wonderful power of causing Cold in respect of them The Southern and VVestern Winds are found more hot than the Easternly and VVesternly So this Question is wont vulgarly to be propounded yet we must know that in must not generally be understood of all places but only concerning the places of our Zone For in the other temperate Zone scituated towards the South from the Aequator the contrary holdeth true because that in these places the Northern-winds are hot or warm and the Southern are found more cold And so the nature of the thing and the condition of the cause required For the reason why the South-wind is discovered more warm to us and the North more cold proceedeth hence viz. that the South-winds come from a quarter and places more near unto the torrid Zone or way of the Sun but the Northern places more remote from that way of the Sun that is from more cold places But the contrary is found in places scituated towards the Antartick Pole from the Aequator because that the Northern-winds approach to them from the way of the Sun the Southern from the places more near the Pole But as concerning the Eastern and Western-winds I must answer otherwise neither doth that diversity of the places of our Zone and that of the opposite here take place Therefore first it is said in the preceding Proposition that the Western-winds are less frequent in all places the cause of which is the same with that by reason of which the Occidental winds are discovered more warm viz. because that for the most part they blow in the Night and after the setting of the Sun where the Air that is thrust forwards towards our place is more calid or less frigid than the Air of our place which is more remote from the West than that which lieth between the Sun and our place There is also another cause which also is of force in the difference between the Northern and Southern-winds viz. that the Western-winds blow with less violence and not so intense but with some relaxation Now it is known that any Air or Wind is discovered so much the more cold by how much it bloweth with the greater or more intense force although in truth it be no hotter or colder which is evident by our expiration which we can exhale either cold or hot Proposition XVII Why Mariners from the sight of a Cloud especially such a one that is of a pale or duskish colour predict a wind from that quarter also to declare the other signs of future winds Mariners from the sight of a Cloud predict a Wind from that quarter A twofold Reason may be rendred for either Clouds of that colour do shew that by and by they shall be dissipated and dissolved into Blasts or else the Clouds sinking by their own weight and segregated from other Clouds press down the Air beneath them and so cause it to blow Concerning the peculiar Clouds termed by the Dutch the Bulls-eye see the following Chapter 1. The Sun appearing spotted in his rising and lying obscured under a pale or black Cloud foretelleth either showers or winds 2. If that the Sun at his rising appeareth concave so that it shineth
great concernment yet it is better to begin from the Aequator that all the places may lie in some Climate Proposition XV. To shew the use of the Table of the Climates 1. The Latitude of some place or Elevation of the Pole being given to know the quantity of the Longest day in that place and the Climate in which it lieth Let the given Elevation of the Pole be sought in the Table and on the opposite Region we shall find both the quantity of the Longest day as also the Climate and the Parallel If that the given Elevation cannot be found in the Table then take that Elevation which is less near or the like which is found in the Table From the Longitude of the Longest day of any place to know the Latude of the place and the Parallel and Climate 2. The Longitude of the Longest day of any place being given which any person hath observed or received by relation to know from thence the Latitude of that place the Parallel and the Climate in which that place lieth Enter the Table with the Latitude given and you shall see on the opposite Region both the Latitude and the Place demanded as also the Climate and Parallel 3. A Climate being given to determine the Longitude of the Longest day and the Elevation of the Pole This is facil from the very sight of the Table CHAP. XXVI Of the Light Heat Cold Rains in the diverse parts of the Earth or Zones and other properties of the Zones Proposition I. These Causes are efficacious to generate and procure Light Heat Cold and Rain with other Meteors in the places of the Earth and the vicine Air. Of the causes of Heat 1. THe more or less or no obliquity of the Rays of the Sun coming to or emitted on any place For the Rays falling perpendicular on any place cause great heat and the other Rays sliding obliquely have for that very reason a less power of heating by how much the obliquity of them is the greater that is by how much the more they decline from the perpendicular Ray. 2. The diurnal stay of the Sun above the Horizon of the place For the same heat maketh more hot and changeth the Air in a longer time than in a shorter 3. The depression of the Sun beneath the Horizon being more or less in the Night season For this difference of depression causeth that either more or less Light is perceived in the Air also more or less Heat Rain thick Clouds Hitherto belongeth the Twilight 4. The more or less Elevation of the Moon above the Horizon the more or less depression of the same beneath the Horizon the more or less Diurnal stay of the same above the Horizon The Causes are the same with those alledged in the three foregoing Paragraphs The Planets and fixed Stars raise Vapours c. in the Air. 5. The same may be said of fixed Stars especially of those more noted ones and of the five other Planets Saturn Jupiter Mars Venus and Mercury For they generate some light and heat in the Air although it be but little and change the Air divers ways and raise Vapours if that we may credit Astronomers 6. The propriety or species of the Earth of every place For where the Earth is more stony and rocky there for the most part it is more Cold than where it is sulphureous and fat and here again it is more fertilâ— Where there is much Sand and no Rivers there is greater Heat Fumes and Mists proceed from Lakes 7. Lakes or the Sea adjacent From thence also Fumes and Mists are raised more moist and frequent in the Air and the Rays are less powerfully reflected from the Sea than from the Earth 8. The scituation of Places For the Sun acteth otherwise on Mountains and Mountainous places than on Valleys and Plains Moreover Mountains hinder the free access of the Rays of the Sun to the subject places for to them the Vapours of the Air are in some sort attracted See Chap. 20. whence the Mountains change the seasons of the adjacent places as Heat Rain and the like For these would be otherwise in the Subject places if that the Mountains were absent The Winds cause difference in the weather 9. The Winds especially the general So the Etesian winds temperate and allay the Canicular heat A general Wind in the Torrid Zone especially the Subsolan winds in Brasilia render the Heat temperate when in Africa which is Occidental the Heat is vehement because these places feel not so general a Wind. The Northern winds are cold and dry the Southern warm and moist in our places 10. Clouds Rain and Fogs take away and diminish light and heat I suppose that there are not many causes of this variety in light and heat c. which is observed in divers places of the Earth or also in the same places but yet in a different time or season Proposition II. How are the Seasons of the year Spring Summer Autumn and Winter to be defined The four Seasons of the Year Although in Sciences we ought not to contend and dispute concerning Definitions yet because certain Homonymes or Likenesses do here occur without the Explication of which there will arise much confusion in the following Doctrine therefore I will so propose this Question that you may the more cautiously avoid this Homonyme that they may not be deceived and intangled by the same The Question comprehendeth two difficulties first Whether these Seasons ought to be defined from the entrance of the Sun and his stay in certain sings of the Ecliptick and Zodiack According to Astronomers and Astrologers For so Astronomers and Astrologers commonly do saying that that is the Spring whilst the Sun moveth from the first degree of Aries to the first of Cancer that is Summer whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Cancer to the first of Libra that is Autumn whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Libra to the first of Capricorn and that is Winter whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Capricorn to the first degree of Aries Now it is manifest that these Definitions are not general and agreeable to all places because they are only of force in the Northern places scituated from the Aequator towards the Pole Artick and not in the Southern so that for these Definitions the same persons bring Definitions contrary to the former saying that in these places the Spring beginneth from the first degree of Libra proceeding unto the first of Capricorn the Summer from the first of Capricorn to the first of Aries the Autumn from the first of Aries to the first of Cancer and the Winter from the first of Cancer to the first of Libra But from thence it would follow that those Seasons cannot possibly be defined which is false and Generals ought to be defined by Generals Secondly Definitions so made cannot have place in the places of the Torrid Zone
of Mars Jupiter Saturn and the fixed Stars is altogether uncertain by reason of the defect of the parallaxy or mutual changing In the Copernicans Hypothesis the distance is varied not only from the motion of the Planets but also from the motion of the Earth it self The Reasons of either Opinion to wit of the Ptolomean and Copernican concerning the place of the Earth are almost the same with them which in the precedent Chapter we have alledged for this disputation hath great affinity with the same For if you ascribe and allow the second motion to the Sun which is called the proper motion not the Sun but the Earth shall be in the midst but if you allow that second Motion to the Earth not the Earth but the Sun shall be in the middle These Arguments following may be said for the Copernicans Opinion The Sun not only the fountain of Light but also the vital Spirit of the whole Universe 1. The Sun is not only the Fountain of Light which as a most clear shining torch illuminates the Earth Moon Venus and without doubt the rest of the Planets but he is the fire-hearth of heat and vital spirit by which this whole Universe seemeth to be cherished and sustained Therefore it is probable that he holdeth the middle place and that these are moved round about him 2. It is more likely that the Earth should be moved about the Sun that together with the rest of the Planets she may receive light and heat from him The Sun a vast body c. 3. The Sun being placed in the midst some cause is rendred why the rest of the Planets and the Earth may be carried round about him to wit because the Sun is a most vast body and endowed with great vertues and forces therefore he rowleth and stirreth up the rest of the Planets to their motion And this Reason especially taketh place if we admit Keplers Hypothesis concerning the motion of the Planets Spots in the Sun 4. The Observations of Galilaeus and Scheiner concerning the spots in the Sun prove that the Sun is moved about his Axil In the same manner therefore the rest of the Planets have their cause of going about neither seems it consistent with reason that any other should be attributed to him 5. If we allow the Earth a place between Mars and Venus and allow the Center to the Sun the motion of every Planet fittingly answers and agrees to the distance from the Center which in the Ptolomaick Supposition is manifest not to be effected by the consideration of the motions of the Sun Venus and Mercury 6. Those Celestial appearances which we have used in the former Chapter for the proving the second Motion of the Earth are also valid and efficacious for this place which I have said must be assigned to the Earth to wit the Retrograde course and station of the Planets and the admirable apparent motions of Venus and Mercury c. For indeed that second motion of the Earth doth before hand suppose this place and placing of the Earth or hath it joyned to it self very nearly But this Argument in my Opinion is the chiefest Yet for the first motion of the Earth nothing can be fetcht by way of Argument for gathering thence the situation of the Earth For the Earth might be in the Center of the World if she were without or wanted the second motion as Origanus also determines 7. So also the variation of the distance of the Planets from the Earth is well declared The Aristotelians and Platonists Arguments about the Earth Yet notwithstanding the Aristotelians and Platonists oppugn the Pythagoreans Opinion with many Arguments and endeavour to challenge the Center of the Earth for a place by these Arguments First heavy things are carried to the Center of the World but the Earth is the heaviest body therefore it takes up that Center Secondly heavy things would go from the Earth towards the Center of the Universe unless this Center were in the Earth Thirdly the Center is the ignoblest place and the Earth also is the vilest part of this Universe therefore it shall have the Center thereof Fourthly if the Earth were without the Center of the World and motion of the Stars then the Stars and Constellations would be seen in some seasons of the year and some days bigger than in others Fifthly neither would the middle part of Heaven always be conspicuous as Taurus rising the Scorpion should set c. Sixthly neither would there be Equinoxes Seventhly neither the Moon rising eclipsed would the Sun set c. Eightly neither would the number of Miles in the Earth equally answer every degree in Heaven The aforesaid Reasons of the Aristotelians refuted by the Copernicans The Copernicans do easily weaken these Reasons of the Aristotelians For the first and second is refell'd because the motion of heavy things is not to the Center of the Vniverse but to the homogeneal body as is proved by the parts of the Moon the Sun and Loadstone The third Reason taketh a false major and minor proposition For the Center is also a noble place and the Earth is not ignoble or base The other Reasons are easily disproved by Diagrams or Descriptions this at least being fore-supposed that the distance of the Earth from the Sun or Center how great soever it be yet if it be compared with the distance of the fixed Stars from the Sun it would be so little as that it would have no proportion to it The distance of the Moon Venus and Mercury from the Earth not so great as of Mars Jupiter and Saturn Moreover the Explication of the Theorem belongeth to this place that the distance of the fixed Stars and superiour Planets Mars Jupiter and Saturn is so great from the Earth that the half Diameter of the Earth hath no proportion to it but the distance of the Moon Venus and Mercury is not so great touching the Sun there is as yet a doubt surely if there be any proportion of the half Diameter of the Earth to the distance of the Earth from the Sun that will be very small But the Theorem is proved thus First the fixed Stars and higher Planets appear to us to rise at the same moment at which they would appear to rise by a right contrived supputation and calculation if we were set in the Center of the Earth Therefore the distance of our place from the Center of the Earth that is the half Diameter bears no proportion to the distance of the fixed Stars Secondly if we take the Meridian or Altitude of a fixed Star or one of the superiour Planets with an Astronomical Instrument we find the same as if we had observed it in the Center of the Earth Therefore the semidiameter of the Earth vanisheth away in respect of that distance Thirdly if there were any proportion then the distance of two Stars would be found to be lesser about the Horizon than
proceed from dry bodies So Sal Armoniac vanisheth into smoak fire being placed under it This also is the cause that in divers Regions a different Air is discovered Also that it raineth in one place and not in another Proposition V. The least particles of the Air and those all insensible repell or reflect the rayes as a Looking-glass but some of the particles of the Air being sensible and compounded do transmit many rayes but reflect fewer others on the contrary transmit fewer rayes and reflect more Therefore the parts of the Atmosphere are divided into those that are opac and pellucid The parts of the Atmosphere these are those that transmit many rayes the former are those that transmit fewer Therefore because that the least particles both water and earth being Atoms are solid little bodies without any pores so that they transmit no rayes but repell them because that it is very probable that a perspicuity or a transmission of rayes doth require pores orderly placed in a body and empty little spaces But the parts of the Air or Atmosphere composed of little particles if that they shall have ordinate and many pores they will be perspicuous and transmit many rayes but if that those particles shall be composed or aggregated very confusedly they will transmit rayes without any pores thence it cometh to pass that the Sun discussing a thick cloudy opac Air doth make it perspicuous to wit more porous Now that the least particles reflect rayes is manifest from hence that the rayes of the Sun in a most serene Air be admitted into an obscure Chamber through a narrow hole you will see manifestly from the particles flying in a great number in the Air that the rayes are reflected to the eye as from a glass Now seeing that those particles are yet sensible the same must be concluded concerning the least particles and those that fly the sense Now those who will have humid attenuated vapours to be perspicuous but not dry ones and smoaks they are refuted by experience and reason By reason because that fumes and dry exhalations may be made equally subtile and porous as those that are watery but they suppose that perspicuity doth not consist in the mode or reason of the pores but in a peculiar quality But it is manifest by experience because that the Air is serene it hath more dry than moist particles for in that new kind of Wind-gun which is not discharged by powder or fire but by the help of wind and air the Air is so condensated that it scarcely comprehendeth the sixtieth part of the former space yet neither do they create any kind of humidity in the Gun which must altogether happen if that the particles of the serene Air were watery Proposition VI. Exhalations do not ascend of themselves and of their own nature upwards but they are forced by a violent motion or the Air is not light but heavy in a proper mode of expression Of exhalations All that is to be termed grave or heavy is moved to the Center of the Earth except that it be hindred but the Air doth that for the Earth being digged up the Air descendeth into the space made That therefore it is carried upwards is thus performed 1. That heat rarifieth it to seek a greater space 2. Because that it is forced by another vapour So in cold places as in Nova Zembla and with us in the night season no Mist ascendeth but the heat of the Sun approaching rarifieth it and causeth one part to force out and thrust forwards the other For if that those small particles of Air were free neither mutually implicated one within another then at length it would be light Proposition VII The upper parts of the Atmosphere are more subtile than the lower yet it may so come to pass that the middle parts may be more gross and condensed than the lower parts about the Earth Therefore the more light parts fly to the upper place they are more subtile and light hence the truth of the member of the former Proposition is manifest Now the cause of the latter member is that the parts in the middle Air easily counite again and so become thicker for the hot or calid Particles being carried up with them have forsaken them and the Rays refracted from the Earth in that middle Region by reason of their distance have no force Thence it cometh to pass that after Rain the middle Air is more serene because the more thick parts are separated Proposition VIII The Atmosphere or Air being heated possesseth more space than before now by how much it is more destitute of heat by so much the more it contracteth it self and occupieth the lesser space The Air being heated possesseth more space than before This is excellently shewed by that Instrument which we call a Thermometer or Weather-glass because that we measure the temperature of the Air and heat by in in hot and cold in which we discover the Air to become more condensed and to occupy lesser space in the Glass by how much the Air acquireth less heat as we shall shew in the following Proposition Now the cause of the Proportion is a priore because the calid Particles either of the Rayes of the Sun or of another fire are most subtile of all the Particles of the whole world and in continual motion Therefore those Atmospheres whilst that they are admixed separate and divide these Particles with a great force and so cause more pores and these little fires departing the Particles of the Air left to themselves unite again or are mutually complicated within themselves Corollary Therefore the Altitude of the Air or Atmosphere is not constant but decreaseth and increaseth viz. at Noon-day it ought to be greater at Midnight least about the time of the rising and setting of the Sun moderate as in Proposition XIV Proposition IX To make a Thermometer Thermoscope or Weather-glass by which we may discover the mutations of the Air in heat and cold Take a Glass of an oblong and cylindrical neck with the spherical small head L H How to make a Thermomemeter or Weather-glass let this be fixed to the Table or Board M N P Q the head being erected Let a Vessel with water be placed under the Orifice which is best to be coloured so filled that part of the pipe or neck L F may be hidden in it Now let the time of the moderate constitution of the Air or at that time at whose temperature you will compare the temperature of the Air of the other days and at that time let the water be poured into the Vessel so it will happen that the Air becoming more frigid Sec Scheme the water will ascend upwards beyond F because that the Air being condensated with cold which before filled up the space F A now possesseth less space On the contrary the Air being rendred more hot the water will descend from F towards L because that the
the Air than it would do without this refraction We shall anon alledge an example of the appearancy of the Sun proceeding from refraction 4. The Full Moon and near the Full remaineth above the Horizon for many days when the Sun is depressed beneath it viz. for so many more days by how much that place is more near the Pole Yet it is not so highly elevated above the Horizon as to cause any warmness But the Full Moon in those months in which the Sun remaineth above the Horizon in an whole revolution the Full Moon is never above the Horizon The Planets not always the same above Horizon 5. The Fixed Stars are almost the same always above the Horizon but not the Planets For Saturn remaineth 15 years above the Horizon of the place near the Pole and 15 beneath the same Jupiter 6 years beneath and 6 above the same Horizon Mars 1 year Venus and Mercury about half a year From this cause it is likely that there is great diversity of the motions of the Air and seasons in divers years 6. The Land in most places of the Frigid Zone is Stony Rocky and as hard as Flint in few places Chalky Sulphureous and Fat In these places there is a moderate fertility in the other a sterility 7. Those Regions are incompassed with the Sea but for the Mediterranian we as yet have no certain account 8. Some of the Regions of the Frigid Zone have Mountains of a moderate hight but most want them running on a plain for a long space 9. The cold Winds there frequently blow from the Polary Plaga seldom the East Wind and least of all the West In the cold Artick Plaga the North Winds rage in the Antartick the South 10. Clouds and Rains frequently perplex these Regions From these causes it is not difficult to collect what the condition of the seasons in these Regions are for in the Winter time when the Sun riseth not for whole daies it cannot otherwise be but that for the most part thick Clouds Frost and Cold must render the Land uninhabitable They are not altogether deprived of light for that time for the Moon being above the Horizon for a long time giveth light and the twilight is daily afforded from the Sun to the Vicine Horizon But the Snow the stick close about the Earth which cannot be discussed by the heat of the Sun and therefore hinder the aspect of remote things There is no fertility but all barren and uncultivated for that which some suppose by how much any Region is nearer to the Pole by so much less it feeleth the intenseness of the cold and the Fields are found more fertil seemeth not probable to me when neither in Nova Zembla which is distant 16 degrees from the Pole nor in Spitzbirga which is only 8 degrees distant such a constitution of the Earth is found but a roughness and hardness and almost in the middle of Summer Snows or at least Showers and very cold Winds Neither is their opinion helped by one example observed by Mariners in a certain Region 9 degrees distant from the Pole which most men suppose to be Groenland For in this green Grass is found and an Air more warm than in Nova Zembla as is most certain The only Animals peculiar to these Northern Regions Rhinoceros a kind of Venison is the Rhinoceros and this in the space of a month becometh exceeding fat by feeding on this grass Nevertheless seeing that as yet not many Regions are hitherto found of this temperature in the Frigid Zone it is not expedient for us from this single example to make a general conjecture especially seeing that the cause of this peculiar constitution is manifest for that Land is full of Marshes and Sedgey and the grass by which the Rhinoceros or Dear are tendred so fat is not a kind of Terrestrial Grass but Sedge and Osiers but other Herbs are not there found or any Trees From whence we may gather that that Land containeth some fat and Sulphureous Substance which being mixed which the water produceth such an Oyle and fattening Sedge but that the like Earth is to be found in other parts of the Frigid Zone hath not as yet been observed but rather the contrary Therefore in the Winter in these places is little light but an incredible and great violence of Cold Snow Showers and Polary Winds And this Winter beginneth in the Northern Frigid Zone when the Sun first entreth Capricorn although also the Autumn the Sun going from the 1 degree of Libra to the 1 of Capricorn be little different from this violent Winter The Spring indeed is less infested with this violence of the Air yet it is without Snows Showers and cold Polary Winds Yet the increase of heat in the day or rather the decrease of cold is discovered at that time viz. the Sun going from the 1 degree of Aries to the 1 of Cancer And in this Vernal season or in the latter days of it the Sun continueth above the Horizon in intire revolutions and therefore then there is discovered a moderate heat which yet is not of that force as to melt and dissolve the Snow of all those places into Water much less is it able to melt the Ice whence Marriners report that here is to be found Snow and Ice of a perpetual duration Then the Summer shall be from the going of the Sun from the 1 degree of Cancer to the 1 of Libra in the first part of which the Sun yet remaineth for whole daies above the Horizon and augmenteth the heat by some accession so that June July and August are months of a tolerable Air. In some places among the Mountains the heat of the Sun is intense but the Showers and Clouds do much hinder this benignity of the Sun and especially the most sharp Northern Winds unto which sometimes Snow is adjoyned so that no fruits or Corn can here arrive to any maturity except in some places near the Artick Circle CHAP. XXVII Of the Shadows which the bodies erected in the Earth and illuminated by the Sun do cast and of the division of the Earth arising from thence SEeing that the Shadows in divers places of the Earth which the illuminated bodies of the Sun do cast are carryed into divers places and falling on the Sense have much variety hence it came to pass that men who were ignorant of this cause were struck with an admiration and in respect of the Shadows of the Earth divided the Inhabitants of the Earth as it were into three sorts which division must be applyed to the places of the Earth or to its Superficies So that they termed some Amphiscij others Heteroscij and the rest Periscij The explication of which terms seeing that they contain but small learning we shall say somewhat also concerning Shadows which although they do not pertain to Geography yet by reason of their near affinity they may be proposed in this Chapter Of
place of a Ship in a Voyage p. 361 Lib. 1. c. 2. A Half English foot A Half Dutch and also an old Roman half foot A Half foot of Paris in French And also a half Greek foot A Half foot of Antwerp in Handers A Half Aegyptian foot from Alexandria A Half Babylonian foot mentioned by Historians A Half foot of Venice A Half foot of Toledo in Spaine A Half foot of Vienna in Austria The Proportion of diverse Miles according to theire compaired Length Lib. 1. c. 2. An Indian Mile A Russian Mile A Mile of Cambaja An English Mile A French Mile And allmost an old Arabian League A Holland Mile A Spanish League A German Mile A Swedish Mile THE ABSOLUTE OR COMPLEAT PART OF General Geography BOOK I. SECT I. CHAP. I. Concerning the Precognita's or things known before the handling of the Art it self as the Definition Division Object Properties Principles Order Method Original Excellency and other affections of GEOGRAPHY to be spoken of by way of Preface A Preface to an Art very necessary THE Custom or fashion hath for a long time prevailed that they who compleatly treat of and handle any Art or Science do in the first place declare some things touching the Conditions Method Constitution and other properties of their Doctrine Neither do I think that this is done by them without reason so that it be performed without any Sophistical encroachment seeing that by such like fore-had Instruction the Readers Understanding may before-hand conceive a certain Idea or Platform of the whole Art or Science to be afterwards handled or at least may understand the Argument or Contents thereof and withal may gather thereby how he ought to order himself in the studying the same I therefore shall in this Chapter deliver some few passages concerning the same The Definition of Geography GEOGRAPHY is called a mixt Mathematical Science which teacheth the affections or qualities of the Earth and the parts thereof depending of quantity that is to say the figure place magnitude and other like properties Geography by some but too strictly is taken for the only description and plâ—cing the Countrys of the Earth And on the contrary by others it is extended but too largely to the political description of every Country But these Men are easily excused seeing they do it to retain and stir up the Readers affections who otherwise by a bare account and naked description of those Countrys would be made drowsie and heedless The Division of Geography We will divide Geography into General and Special or Universal and Particular General or Vniversal Geography is that which doth generally consider the Earth and declare its properties without any respect of particular Countrys Special or Particular Geography is that which teacheth the constitution and placing of all single Countrys or every Country by it self And this particular Geography is twofold Particular Geography twofold Chorographical and Topographical General Geography and its parts to wit Chorography and Topography Chorography proposeth the description of any Country having at least a mean magnitude Topography describeth any little tract of Land or place In this Book we will present you with a General Geography which we have distributed into Three parts to wit the Absolute part the Respective part and the Comparative part In the Absolute part we will consider the very Body of the Earth with its parts and proper affections and qualities as figure magnitude motion Lands Seas Rivers c. In the Respective part we will contemplate those properties and accidents which from Celestial causes happen to the Earth And lastly the Comparative part shall contain an explication of those properties which arise from the comparing of divers places of the Earth The Object of Geography The Object of Geography or Subject about which it is employed is the Earth but principally its Superficies and parts The Properties of Geography Those things which deserve to be considered in every Country seem to be of a triple kind to wit Celestial Terrestrial and Human and therefore may be declared in the particular Geography for every Country with the profit of Learners and Readers The Celestial properties of Geography I call those Celestial properties which depend on the apparent motion of the Sun Stars and other Planets and seem to be Eight 1. The elevation of the Pole the distance of the place from the Equator and from the Pole 2. The obliquity or wriness of the daily motion of the Stars above the Horizon of that place 3. The Quantity of the longest and shortest day 4. The Climate and Zone 5. Heat and Cold and the Seasons of the year also Rain Snow Winds and other Meteors for although these things may be referred to Terrestrial properties yet because they have a great affinity with the four Seasons of the Year and motions of the Sun therefore we have marshalled them in the order and rank of Celestials 6. The rising of the Stars their appearance and continuance above the Horizon 7. The Stars passing through the Vertical point of the place 8. The quantity or swiftness of the Motion wherewith according to Copernicus his Hypothesis each one is very hour wheeled about According to Astrologers a Ninth property may be added because they do appoint one of the Twelve Signs of the Zodiack and the peculiar Planet of that Sign to rule and govern every Country But this Doctrine hath ever seemed to me frivolous neither can I perceive any ground for it nevertheless at the end of our Special or Particular Geography we will reckon up this their distribution These may suffice for the Celestial affections or properties I call those Terrestrial properties which are considered in the place of every Country it self of which I shall note Ten. 1. The bounds and circumference of the Country 2 It s Figure 3 It s Magnitude 4 Its Mountains 5 Its Waters as Rivers Springs Bays of the Sea 6 The Woods and Deserts 7 The Fruitfulness and Barrenness as also the kinds of Fruits 8 The Minerals or things dig'd out of the Earth 9 The living Creatures 10 The Longitude of the Place which ought to be added to the first Terrestrial property to wit the Circumference The Humane properties of Geography I make the third kind of Properties which are to be considered in every Country to be Humane which do depend of the Men or Natives and Inhabitants of the Countries of which Humane properties about Ten also may be made 1. The stature of the Natives as to their shape colour length of life Original Meat Drink c. 2 Their Trafficks and Arts in which the Inhabitants are employed 3 Their vertues Vices Learning Wit c. 4 Their Customs in Marriages Christnings Burials c. 5 Their Speech and Language 6 Their State-Government 7 Their Religion and Church-Government 8 Their Cities and most renowned Places 9 Their memorable Histories And10 Their famous Men Artifices and Inventions of the Natives of all Countries
therefore a round spherical figure is to be assigned to the Earth Because all the appearances as well Celestial as the divers elevation of the Pole the divers altitude of the Sun of that day in divers Countries the reason of the Shadows the difference and increase of the Longest days towards the Pole times of the rising and setting of the Stars c. as Terrestrial as the direction of Navigations the appearing and hiding of Towers and Mountains the distances of Places the Ports Coasts Winds c. are most commodiously declared by that round or spherical form or figure neither can another figure be devised which can perform that as it is manifest by the consideration of divers figures and forms of Bodies And our artificial Terrestrial Globe so justly represents all these things as they are really found to be in the Earth which certainly could not be done if the Earth had any form or figure than that of our artificial Globe And what other form soever you shall chuse there will follow innumerable absurdities For it is manifest that it is not plain by the appearances hither alledged and that it neither can be hollow is clear from this that the Sun and Stars ought first then to appear to the western People than to the Eastern if it were of such a figure as we see the Sun rising first to illuminate the Valleys before it can give light to the averse parts of Mountains CHAP. IV. Concerning the Dimension and Magnitude of the Earth The Opinions of divers Writers concerning the Dimension and Magnitude of the Earth THe Dimension or measuring of the Earth comprehends three principal Heads First the Longitude or length of the Diameter or half Diameter that is of a line from the Superficies to the Center as also of a periphery of the Earth or the Circumference Secondly the magnitude of the Superficies of the whole Earth Thirdly the solidness or corporeal Dimension of the Earth But these things are so contrived together that one of them being known the other two come to our knowledge by Geometrical Instruments because the Earth is a certain Sphere as it is shewed in the second Chapter This property is the most noble and hard to know and hath exercised the most excellent Wits for many Ages insomuch that some Men have written whole Books concerning this matter And therefore I have thought that it would not prove ungrateful to the Students of Geometry if I should fully relate here the History of this Dimension Diogenes Laertius praiseth Anaximander the Milesian the Scholar of Thales Anaximander the Milesian the Scholar of Thales that besides other Astronomical Inventions he first of all others described the circuit or perimeter of both Land and Sea But Anaximander lived about the year 550 before the Birth of Christ The Mathematicians of succeeding Ages seem to have followed his Dimension even until Eratosthenes Aristotle because Authors make mention of none other and therefore I judge that to be the Magnitude assigned by Anaximander which Aristotle hath noted in the end of his second Book de Coelo saying The Mathematicians also which endeavour to measure out the Magnitude of the World report that the Earth is bounded in and girt with four hundred Stadiums By this perimeter it is no difficult matter to assign the half diameter of the Earth according to Anaximander But because we can find nothing noted concerning Anaximanders Invention besides that one place of Diogenes Laertius Eratosthenes his and Eratosthenes his diligence is obscured who next after Anaximander undertook this business with great applause of all men he lived about two hundred years before Christ and as he was most conversant in the rest of the Mathematicks and Dimensions so he is esteemed most accurately to have perfected Gâ—eodaesia or Surveying and this glory is principally ascribed to him But he discovered and delivered The circuit of the Earth that the perimeter or circuit of the Earth is two hundred fifty thousand Stadiums or Furlongs but others two hundred fifty two thousand which Pliny reports to make up three hundred fifteen thousand Roman miles every one of which are thought to be a thousand Paces Eratosthenes had written three Books of Geography Eratosthenes which by reason of the injury of time are now not to be found Strabo Strabo the famous Geographer relateth the Contents and Arguments of each Book Cleomedes and Cleomedes hath noted up his manner which Eratosthenes used for the discovery of the Circuit of the Earth in which what can be wanted we will hereafter declare For indeed Eratosthenes his measuring forth the Earth was by many Mathematicians especially Hipparchus a hundred years after Eratosthenes judged to swerve from the truth although there is nothing written touching Eratosthenes his Dimension or measuring forth the Earth but that he added twenty five thousand stadiums to the perimeter Possidonius But Posidonius being not only a most knowing Astronomer and Practioner but also in every part of Philosophy most expert did next after Eratosthenes enter upon this Doctrine a little before the birth of Christ to wit in the time of Cicero and Pompey This man by his Dimensions found the circumference of the Earth to be two hundred forty thousand stadiums Cleomedes as Cleomedes hath noted but 180000 stadiums Strabo as Strabo hath delivered whereby ariseth a great doubt concerning the cause of this difference between Cleomedes and Strabo his allowance seeing this of Strabo is the truer although uttered in a few words But Cleomedes his assignation of the same is far from truth although he read and expounded Posidonius his Geodesie to many Concerning his size or manner we will speak hereafter But the Dimension of Eratosthenes was used as yet of many even to Ptolomy's time the year 144 after Christ who used a Perimeter of 180000 stadiums and affirmed it to be more agreeable to truth insomuch that this very Invention was by Theon ascribed to him Theon It is gathered that Marinus a famous Geographer Marinus and by whose Writings Ptolomy was much aided did attempt something in this business as appeared by his Geographical Writings of the same Ptolomy After these times when as the study and prosecution of the Sciences by little and little vanished away in Greece nothing was done in this business neither did the Romans undertake any thing herein But the Arabians and Sarazons having obtained the Empire or glory of other Arts from the Grecians to themselves so likewise they left not this part of the Mathematicks untouched Forasmuch as Snellius relates out of Abelfedea an Arabian Geographer who flourished about the year of Christ 1300 and whose Writings were printed at Rome about the 800 year of the Christian Account Maimon Ring of Arabia studious in Geography in whose days it flourished Maimon King of the Arabians or the Calife of Babylon being studious in the Mathematicks forasmuch as he
P s 40000 paces are to B P 480 paces so the whole Sine 10000000 is to 11904 the Tangent of the Angle B S P or S R P or of the Arch S P to wit 41 minutes therefore as 41 minutes are to 60 minutes so 40000 paces are to 59000 paces that is about 15 miles for 1 degree Or the Diameter P R may be found without the Table of Sines or without the finding the Perimeter For as B P is to P S so P S is to P R as 480 is to 40000 so 40000 is to 3333333 paces for the half Diameter R P. The sixth manner of measuring the Earth being the second Terrestrial without the knowledge of the distance The second terrestrial way for the measuring the Earth But truly the same half Diameter R P shall also be concluded in this manner Let B P be the high Tower to wit the Plummet being let down from the hole the height thereof may be found to be 100 paces Or if the height of the Mountain P B be known by another Geodesie or surveying 4000 paces afterwards the Instrument being applied in the top of B let the Angle of the last Sight be found P B S 88 degrees 37 minutes Therefore B R S shall be one degree 23 minutes Out of the Canon of Sines let the Sine of 88 degrees 37 minutes be taken and let this be subtracted from the whole Sine 10000000. And let it be dispatch'd thus as the remainder is to the Sine of 88 degrees 37 minutes so B P of 1000 paces is to the half Diameter S R in paces The seventh manner being the third Terrestrial The third terrestrial way for the measuring the magnitude of the Earth This way or manner shall seem more accurate then the former ways and shall appear more applicable to the practice taking two mountains or heights of whom not the height but the distance may be known which may be found Geodetically or by the Art of Surveying Let B P be one Altitude of the Mountain Tower c. S T the other height let T P be the distance of five German miles See Scheme let the Angle B T R 89 degrees 55 minutes be found by the Instrument and in the other Mountain T B R 89 degrees 55 minutes The Angle P R S shall be 920 minutes because the three Angles T B R are equated to two strait Angles 180 degrees wherefore according to the Golden Rule Work as 20 degrees are to 60 degrees so 5 miles to 15 miles for 1 degree These are the principal manners and ways of measuring the Earth For by the found out measure of 1 degree the whole Perimeter Diameter Superficies and Solidity is found out Because according to Snellius the Perimeter is 8640 Holland miles or 10260000 Rhindlandish Perches or 123120000 feet therefore by the Problem of the second Chapter the Perimeter of the Earth is found to be 1088 ¼ miles or 1633190 Perches or 19598300 feet The Superficies of the Earth 18811353 â…— square Holland miles And the whole Solidity is 409568â—1512 Cubick miles The calculation of German miles usual But because the calculation by German miles is more usual 15 of which makes 1 degree therefore these may be used but upon this condition that such miles may be understood of which 15 may make 19 Holland miles or that 1 mile may contain 1900 Rhindlandish Perches Therefore the Periphery of the Earth shall be 5400 such miles the half Diameter 860 the Superficies 9278181 square miles the Solidity shall be 265693384 Cubick miles The Italian miles most commodious Yet the Italian miles are the most commodious 60 of which are allowed to 1 degree for so 1 mile fittingly answereth one minute of a degree But such an Italian mile ought to be understood which may contain 475 Rhindlandish Perches so the Circuit of the Earth shall be 21600 such miles the half Diameter 3440 miles Reasons shewing errors in the differing of the dimensions of the Earth according to the Arabians and others Mathematicians These things being thus expounded we must alledge and bring hither the causes why the fore-rehearsed dimensions or measurings of Authors may so differ and what is wanting in every one of them In the first manner of dimensions these things occur First That an Errour may be committed in taking the elevation of the Pole Secondly that a doubt may be made concerning places under the same Meridian Thirdly that the distance may not be declared distinctly And because the Arabians used this manner therefore the things that are desired in their dimension are these First the exact quantity or grEatness of their mile which according to Alfraganus is 4000 Cubits as unknown to us Secondly the Arabians have not shewed to us the places whose Elevations they took and therefore we cannot make further search concerning their diligence Thirdly neither did they demonstrate their manner by which they measured In Eratosthenes's dimension these things deserve correction First that to the Arch found B z of 7 degrees 12 minutes he did not add 15 minutes for the Arch intercepted between the Radius Solis X Z which was to be taken Secondly that he did not prove Syene and Alexandria to lye under the same Meridian Thirdly that the term of the Shadows cannot be exactly noted and besides that the places about Syene even to 150 Stadiums have this property that the Style is without a shadow Fourâ—â—ly that he took the distance between Syene and Alexandria according to the opinion of the Vulgar sort which neglecteth and hath no care of exactness neither can the magnitude of the stadiums be certainly manifest unto us In Posidonius his manner these blemishes are judged to be First that he thought Canobus was not lifted up above the Horizon of Rhodes whenas notwithstanding it may be elevated 2 degrees above it Surely he could not know that it exactly touched it Secondly that he determined the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria by conjectures and common journeys Thirdly that his stadiasm or measure of a stadium is not sufficiently determinate Fourthly because it may be doubtful whether Alexandria and Rhodes lye under the same Meridian c. In the Terrestrial mannerâ— of measuring the Earth there is this defect First that in the exact measuring of Hills a fault may easily be committed Secondly the furthermost point of the Sight cannot be known accurately both because of the refractions as also for the weakness of the eyes It may suffice to have spoken thus much concerning the greatest Circuit of the Earth its half Diameter Superficies and Solidity We might if it were a similar Body by the solidity of the Earth judge of its weight but because parts of a different weight whose proportion is hidden from us are in it therefore its weight cannot but by a conceived supposition be determined The half Diameter of the Earth is the measure of all Celestial dimensions The distance of the Sun and
Moon from the Earth It is worthy observation that the half Diameter of the Earth is the measure of all Celestial dimensions as well in assigning the distances of the Planets from the Earth and from themselves as in numbring and computing their magnitude So we say that the Sun is distant from the Earth ubout 1200 half Diameters the Moon 40 c. But seeing in Geography we do not only consider the great Circles of the Earth as the Equator c. but also the Parallels of the Equator Therefore we must likewise determine how many miles or perches answer one degree in every Parallel We have taken the accounting of the Perches out of Snellius but I my self have reckoned up the miles to wit 1900 Perches for a German mile 1500 for a Belgick or Holland mile 475 for an Italian mile A TABLE of the Quantity of one Degree in every Parallel The Degrees in which the Parallels are distant from the Equator or the Elevation of the Poles of the Parallels Equator of the Perch of one degree Holland miles German Italian The Latitude Of a Perch of one degree Holland miles German Italian   mil. per. miles min. miles min.   mil. per. miles min. miles min.  28500 19 0 15. 0 60. 0         1 28496 18. 1496 14. 59 59. 56 46 19798 13. 298 10. 25 41. 40 2 28483 18. 1483 14. 59 59. 55 47 19437 13. 0 â—0 14 41. 0 3 â—8461 18. 1461 14. 58 59. 52 48 19070 12. 1070 10. 2 40. 8 4 28431 18. 1431 14. 57 59. 50 49 18698 12. 698 9. 50 39. 20 5 28392 18. 1392 14. 56 59. 46 50 18319 12. 319 9. 38 38. 32 6 28344 18. 1344 14. 55 59. 40 51 17936 11. 1436 9. 26 37. 44 7 28288 18. 1288 14. 53 59. 37 52 17546 11. 1046 9. 14 37. 0 8 28223 18. 1223 14. 51 59. 24 53 17152 11. 652 9. 2 36. 8 9 28149 18. 1149 14. 48 59. 12 54 16752 11. 252 8. 49 35. 26 10 28067 18. 1067 14. 46 59. 4 55 16347 10. 1347 8. 36 34. 24 11 27976 18. 976 14. 43 58. 52 56 15932 10. 937 8. 23 33. 32 12 27877 18. 877 14. 40 58. 40 57 15522 10. 522 8. 10 32. 40 13 27769 18. 769 14. 37 58. 28 58 15103 10. 103 7. 57 31. 40 14 27653 18. 653 14. 33 58. 12 59 14671 9. 1179 7. 44 31. 0 15 27529 18. 529 14. 29 50.  60 14250 9. 750 7. 30 30. 0 16 27653 18. 453 14. 25 57. 40 61 13817 9. 317 7. 16 29. 4 17 27255 18. 255 14. 21 57. 20 62 13380 8. 1380 7. 2 28. 8 18 27105 18. 105 14. 16 57. 4 63 12939 8. 939 6. 48 27. 12 19 26947 18. 0 14. 11 56. 44 64 12494 8. 994 6. 34 26. 16 20 26781 18. 0 14. 6 56. 24 65 12045 8. 45 6. 20 25. 20 21 26607 17. 1107 14. 0 56. 0 66 11592 7. 1092 6. 6 24. 24. 22 26423 17. 925 13. 54 55. 36 67 11136 7. 636 5. 52 23. 28 23 26234 17. 734 â—3 48 55. 12 68 10676 7. 176 5. 38 22. 32 24 26036 17. 536 â—3 42 54. 48 69 10213 6. 1213 5. 23 21. 32 25 25830 17. 330 â—3 36 54. 24 70 9748 6. 748 5. 8 20 32 26 25616 17. 116 13. 29 54. 0 71 9279 6. 279 4. 53 19. 32 27 25394 16. 1394 13. 22 53. 28 72 8807 5. 1307 4. 38 18. 32 28 25164 16. 1164 13. 15 53. 0 73 8333 5. 933 4. 23 17. 32 29 24927 16. 927 13. 7 52. 28 74 7846 5. 346 4. 8 16. 32 30 â—4681 16. 681 13. 59 51. 56 75 7376 4. 1376 3. 53 15. 32 31 24429 10. 429 12. 51 51. 24 76 6895 4. 895 3. 38 14 32 32 24169 16. 169 12. 43 50. 52 77 6411 4. 411 3. 23 13. 32 33 23902 15. 1402 12. 35 50. 20 78 5925 3. 1425 3. 8 12. 32 34 23628 15. 1128 12. 26 49. 44 79 5438 3. 938 2. 52 11. 28 35 23346 15. 846 12. 17 49. 8 80 4949 3. 449 2. 36 10. 24 36 23057 15. 557 12. 8 48. 32 81 4458 2. 1458 2. 20 9. 20 37 22761 15. 261 11. 59 47. 56 82 3966 2. 966 2. 5 8. 20 38 22458 15. 0 11. 49 47. 16 83 3473 2. 473 1. 50 7. 20 39 22149 14. 1149 11. 39 46. 36 84 2979 1. 1479 1. 34 6. 12 40 21832 14. 832 11. 29 46. 0 85 2484 1. 984 1. 18 5. 12 41 21509 14. 509 11. 19 45. 16 86 1988 1. 488 1. 3 4. 12 42 21180 14. 180 11. 9 44. 36 82 1492 0. 1492 0. 47 3. 12 43 20843 13. 1343 10. 58 43. 52 88 995 0. 995 0. 31 2. 4 44 20501 13. 1001 10. 47 43. 8 89 497 0. 497 0. 16 1. 4 45 20152 13. 652 10. 36 42. 24 90 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 CHAP. V. The Pythagorical motion of the Earth is the cause of many Celestial appearances THE Pythagorical motion or turning the Earth about as with a wheel not that quaking and shaking is the cause of very many Celestial appearances according to the Copernicans opinion seeing that without it every place would have a perpetual constancie of these But indeed there is no property or quality of the Earth concerning which there can be greater disputations fith that not very long ago it hath suffered the Censure of the Church of Rome Yet because to many men it seemeth likely to be true that such a motion of the Earth may be given therefore I will endeavour briefly to unfold the same The Motion of the Sun Moon and Stars and their appearances It is not unknown to any of the very Vulgar sort that the Sun Moon and all the Stars of Heaven appear every day that is in the space of 24 hours to be moved from East to West and commonly to return to the same places of Heaven It must therefore needs be that either they are really moved or that we are moved and that our motion or moving be imputed to the Stars For if two things change their dâ—stance one of them at least was moved which principle is most manifest The opinion of the Ptolomaians and Pythagoreans concerning the motion of the Stars c. That the Earth standeth still and that the Stars with the Heavens are moved was and is yet the common opinion of Astronomers which are called Ptolomaians or of such as follow the Doctrine of Ptolomy yet the Pythagoreans long ago maintained that the Stars held their place constantly without budging from thence and that the Earth was rouled and wheeled about its Center one of whom was the famous Aristarchus of Samos who for his defending this Opinion was by his Adversary accused of prophaning and violating Religion before the most famous and severe Bench of the Areopagites but he was nevertheless quitted by the sentence of those
most sincere Judges Yet this Opinion found but few Abettors insomuch that many Ages it was as it were buried in oblivion so that there was no mention in Schools made thereof until such time that eminent Astronomer Copernicus some two or three Ages past made it famous and so prevailed therein The opinion of Copernicus therein that very many excellent Astronomers imbraced this Opinion and confirmed it with sundry Arguments and Reasons among whom not long since flourished Kepler the Emperour's profest Mathematician and Galilaeus of Galilee the Italian Mathematician to the grand Duke of Tuscany or Florence and Lanthergius Belga And because there is a twofold motion of the heavenly Bodies perceived by us the first whereof is whereby all the Stars as well fixed â—s Planets seem with equal time to wit in 24 hours to be carried round aboâ—t the Earth and to rise and keep their southing and setting The second motion is that which is called proper whereby the Planets are observed with a different or diverse motion as also are the fixed Stars to be carried from West to East The Ptolomaians aâ—â—irm that both these motions are in the Stars themselves or their Orbs But the Copernicans ascribe that first motion not to the carrying about of the Earth only from one place to another but to the wheeling and turning about of it remaining in her own place about her own Axil from West to East such as is seen to be implanted in all the Stars yet they acquit the fixed Stars as also the Sun from the aforesaid second motion and attribute the apparent motion of these to the carrying of the Earth about the Sun and to the inclination of the Axil notwithstanding they leave the said second motion to the rest of the Planets Forsooth they deny the Sun to be a Planet but place the Earth in his stead and they prefer the Sun into the Ptolomaian place of the Earth to wit the Center of the whole World forasmuch as that is the cause which maketh the Earth Saturn Jupiter Mars Venus and Mercury to turn round about These are the Reasons of this Opinion Of the great number of the Stars which seem to perform their circuit in 24 hours 1. Because so great is the number of the Stars which seem to perform their Circuit in 24 hours about the Earth and this appearance may be declared by the motion of the Earth only remaining in her place therefore it is more agreeable to reason to determine this motion rather then that insomuch as when we sit in a Ship and sayling nearer to a Station or Harbour of many Ships which in the mean while seem as it were to approach or sayl to us yet we do not ascribe a motion or sayling to them And seeing nature doth in no case work by many things that which she can perform with a few it is likely in this business also that that is so observed and kept by her Of the swift motion of the Stars c. 2. Because the swiftness of that motion of the Stars would be incredible and such as would surpass all our imagination for seeing that they are distant from the Earth almost an infinite space and that most vast circuit ought to be run in one minute of an hour at least that they should be carried through 100000 miles Contrariwise if this motion should be ascribed to the Earth she remains still in her place neither need we to fear the least swiftness because she is turned about her own Axil as a Wheel The vastness of the Celestial Bodies compared with the body of the Earth 3. There accrues a greater force to this Argument if we compare the huge vastness of the Celestial Bodies with the Body of the Earth for seeing that the Sun at least is 200 times bigger then the Earth but the fixed Stars are in a manner 1000 times bigger to what man can it not be made more probable that the Earth is turned about its own Axil by a natural motion than that so huge Celestial Bodies should be moved from place to place Of the solidity of the Celestial Orbs according to Tycho Brahe 4. Because all the most famous Astronomers being compelled with Tycho Brahe by the appearances of the Stars c. do now deny that the Celestial Orbs are solid and hard which appearances the ancients used for proving the more easie supposition of the motion of the Stars therefore the carrying or wheeling of them about the Earth seemeth more incredible Yea they deny the Orbs to be solid because if these were so a mutual penetration of the Orbs must needs be granted seeing that some Planets are found frequently in the Sphere of some other No reason for the motion of the Stars about the Earth 5. No reason can be given why the Stars can be moved about the Earth when as contrariwise there may some reason be given why the Earth and the rest of the Planets may be moved about the Sun Of the Pole and Axil 6. Neither is the Pole nor Axil real about which the Stars are determined to be moved contrariwise in the Earth there is both Pole and Axil The sayling of Ships from West to East more easie than from East to West 7. Because the sayling of Ships from West to East is more easie than from East to West For out of Europe into the Indies they sayl in about four months when as in their return home it is about six months And this is because in their Voyage thither they are carried or moved into the same point with the Earth but in their return they are moved or carried into the contrary From the moving of the Earth the Celestial appearances c. may be declared 8. Because all the Celestial appearances the rising and setting of the Stars the increase or lengthning of the days c. may be evidently declared if we maintain the Earth to be moved But most especially the commodiousness and necessity of this Hypothesis is seen in those admirable properties of the Planets to explicate which the Ptolomaicks are compelled to invent many Circles Epicycles and Eccentricks without any reason But the Copernicans do so derive them from the second motion of the Earth about the Sun with easie labour insomuch that thereby they can make the cause of them manifest and so easie that the very unlearned may understand them to wit first why the Planets may seem sometimes to be retrograde or go backwards and indeed Saturn oftner and longer than Jupiter Jupiter than Mars c. sometimes to be carried with a swifter motion and sometimes to be stationary 2ly Why Venus and Mercury can never the whole night long be seen 3ly Why Venus can never depart any greater distance from the Sun than â—0 degrees but Mercury no greater then thirty degrees and therefore those two Planets can never be seen to be opposite to the Sun Fourthly why Venus in the evening
about the Meridian because in this position they are nearer to the Earth almost by one semidiameter of the Earth The same Argument is valid as touching the Sun also for his Diameter is not found greater in the Meridian than when he is yet on the Horizon But the Diameter of the Moon is observed to be a little greater in the Meridian than when as yet she is on the Horizon Therefore in the Meridian it is somewhat nigher to us to wit almost one Semidiameter of the Earth CHAP. VII Concerning the substance and constitution of the Earth WE have in the foregoing Chapters considered the qualities or properties of the Earth no regard being taken of its substance or being But now these being declared it is fitting we consider this also that we may know what kind of body the Earth is and how its parts cohere together the which although it may rather rather seem natural yet because it is requisite for the perfect knowledge of the Earth we will here handle briefly leaving the accurate consideration thereof to the Natural Philosopher Proposition I. To declare of what simple and similar Bodies the Earth may consist or be compounded of Of the four Elements of the Earth There are divers opinions of Philosophers concerning this matter The Peripateticks number four Elements of the Earth and the whole sublunary World being now sufficiently known to the very Vulgar Fire Air Water and Earth Many of the Ancients as Democritus and Leucippus determined that the whole World consisted of very little solid pieces which differ only in their various figures shapes and magnitude and them many of the later Philosophers do follow and of late Cartesius endeavoured by such an hypothesis to declare all natural appearances The three Principles of the Earth by Chymists Chymists make three Principles Sal Sulphur and Mercury to whom some do rightly add Caput mortuum or the Dead head when as they three are fruitful But to me doubtful terms and words being laid aside and the things themselves well considered there seem to be five simple Bodies the first Principles of all things By Others Five simple bodies the first principles of all things to wit Water Oyl or Sulphur Salt Earth and a certain Spirit which the Chymists call Mercury For indeed all Bodies and the parts of the Earth are resolved into those five Elementary substances Notwithstanding I deny not that those differ not so much in essence as in the singular variety of their shapes and magnitudes Therefore the whole Earth consisteth of these simple Bodies which are divers ways commixed from whence ariseth so great variety of Bodies which do appear different from one another and similar or Bodies of like parts But the more exquisite declaration of these points belong to Natural Philosophy which I shall have occasion to treat of more at large in the first Volume of my Book of the Arts and Sciences now ready for the Press Proposition II. The Earth is divided into dry and moist parts or into Earth and Water to which some joyn the Atmosphere This is the vulgar division of Geographers and then the Water is taken in a large signification for all that is liquid or moist and fluid and running as the Land is taken for the whole dry and consistent part of the Earth Of the Land and its various bodies of Nature and thereby doth embrace and comprehend such various bodies of Nature to wit First Sand Loam Clay and Mineral Earths Chalk Cinnaber Ochre Terra sigiâ—lata or Saracens Earth Earth of Samos Bole-Armoniack with divers other kinds of Earth Secondly Stones of various sorts the chief among which are Diamonds Emeralds Rubies Saphirs c. Thirdly Mettals among which are Gold Silver Copper Tin Lead Mercury or Quicksilver Iron Steel c. Fourthly Brimstone Salts Niter Alom Bitumen Vitriol Antimony c. Fifthly Herbs Plants c. Of the Water and its parts To the Water are referred first the Seas secondly Rivers and sweet Waters thirdly Lakes and Fens or Marshes fourthly Mineral Waters as hot Baths sowr Waters c. Of the Atmosphere which encompasses the Earth The Atmosphere is that thin and subtile Body which girts and encompasses the Earth towards Heaven and contains the Air Clouds showers of Rain c. Therefore into these three Parts the Earth is fitly divided Proposition III. To expound how the Earth and Waters cleave or hold together and make the Land The Earth not bounded with one Superficies but hath hollow Cavities 1. The Land that is the dry part of the Earth is not bounded with one and that even superficies or surface but she hath many hollow Caves many parts lifted up aloft In her Cavities caves or hollows which are here and there found round about the whole Earth the Sea or Ocean is contained and therefore part of the Earthly superficies is covered with Waters Those hollows or cavities are not made of an even hollowness but have here and there Rocks and elevated parts and elsewhere they have Gulphs and swallows sunk very deep So the part of the Earth appearing out above the Waters hath certain as it were Navels in its middle and some parts are more or less raised up or sunk down than others So it cometh to pass that the Water environing the whole Earth is hindred that it overwhelms not the whole Earth but the higher parts and such as appear above the Waters are Islands of which some are great and some small Mouths holes Pipes other conveyances in the body of the Earth 2. Besides that continual Channel in the Earth in the outward superficies within also in the solid body of the Earth there are innumerable Mouths holes swallows windings conveyances deeps pipes and huge vast Receivers in some of which there is the Sea which by that secret conveyance are joyned to the Channel of the common Sea in some again there is Sweet Waters Rivers Streams In some spirits or else a sulphury and smoking substance Seneca saith rightly He gives too much way to his eye-sight who believeth not that there are in the hidden and secret bosom of the Earth Bays of a vast Sea Neither do I perceive what may hinder that there may not be some Sea-shore and the Sea received by hidden passages There is therefore no cause of doubting of there being many hollows in the very solid Earth For verily we conjecture at it by these means First by the Rivers which are found in many places where Earth is digged even to a notable depth which is frequent in Mines Secondly in some places the profundity of the Sea is beyond all sounding or measure Thirdly there are some Caves in the Earth In the Western part of Hispaniola is a Mountain of a great height being hollow within with many Caves in which Rivers of Waters are thrown down headlong with so great sound and rushing noise of streams that the very fall of those Waters may be heard
passage is two days Journey To this some Valleys coming in betwixt them is a second bordering called Cirgins Koy Camen also of two days Journey the third is Podvins Coy Camen the highest of these three Mountains which in many parts throughout the whole year is covered with Snow and Clouds and therefore it affordeth a very difficult passage which is of four days The City Vergateria Siberiae is nigh unto it The Mountains of Norway and Lapland 13. The Mountains of Norway and Lapland which begin from the Southern Promontory of Norway and seperate Sweden in part from Norway then in many orders proceed even to the farthest part of Lapland and are distinguished by divers names as Fillefiel Dofrefiel and the like The Mountain Hercinium in Germany 14. In Germany the famous Mountain Hercinium encompassing all Bohemia and by various windings extending it self into divers Regions and that also by various names In the Dutchy of Brunswick it retaineth its Ancient appellation the Mountain Bructerus is part of it Proposition II. In most Islands and in the procurrent parts of the Continent the Mountains are so scituated that they pass through the middle of the Land and divide them into two parts The division of Lands by Mountains So in Scotland the Mountain Grampius called by the Inhabitants Gransbaine which extendeth through this Island from the East to the West and divides it in two equal parts both which differ not only in the nature of the Soyl but also in the Inhabitants So in the Islands of Sumatra Borneo Luconia Celebes Hispaniola Cuba Mountains are found which arise from the Sea-shore by degrees towards the midst of the Islands unto a very great height The Mountain Gatis So the Mountains Gatis pass through the middle procurrent part of Asia which is called India For they arise from the extremities of Caucasus and proceed to the Promontory of Corus vulgarly called Cabo de Comerino from the North to the South and so divide this procurrent into two parts whereof that part which is on this side Gatis towards the West is termed the Region of Malabar and the other beyond the Mountain Gatis towards the East the Region of Choromandel This very same ridge of Mountains passeth through the other part of India which is now called Bengala through the Kingdoms of Pegu Siam and the whole Chersonesus of Malacca The Mountains in Camboja California Corea So also the Mountains of the procurrent of Earth termed Camboia The like Mountains are in the Peninsula or Isle of California in the procurrent Africa from the Lake Zair to the Promontory of Good-hope In the Peninsula Corea the Apennine in Italy How these Mountains came whether created with the Earth it self or whether they afterwards sprung from natural Causes is uncertain Proposition III. Of Mountains famous for their exceeding Altitude The Mountain of El Pico the highest in the world 1. El Pico in Teneriff esteemed the highest in the whole World whose top is conspicuous at Sea 60 miles there is no ascending up it but in July and August by reason that it is covered all the other part of the Year with Snow although that Snow is never seen in the Island it self or the adjacent Canary Isles The Vertex is manifestly discovered to be advanced above the Clouds seeing that these encompass the middle of the Mountain and the Vertex is beheld to be above this Cloud but because it suffereth Snow thence it is certain that it is not protended beyond the middle Region of the Air. Three days are required to ascend to the top of this Mountain for it is not a spiral top but plain and the Air being serene and without Clouds one may distinctly discern from it all the other circumjacent Canary Isles of which some are 50 miles remote from it In those two Months many Sulphureous stones are brought from the Mountain and carried in great abundance into Spain 2. In one of the Azores near to the Isle Fayal The Mountain Pico de St. George there is found a Mountain called Pico de St. George whence the Isle is called Pico It is reported to have an equal Altitude with the Mountain of Teneriff The Mountain Cordillera 3. The Mountain called Cordillera in the Southern America separating Peru from the other Provinces is said to be of that exceeding height that it giveth place to no Mountain of the Earth for Altitude It extendeth from the Streights of Magellan to Panama Mount Aetna 4. Aetna a Mountain in Sicilia from the top of which fire is discerned to be ejected in the Isle of Malta whence it is supposed to have at the least an intire mile in Altitude but in the preceeding Chapter we have given a reason of this apparent Altitude 5. Hecla a Mountain of Island Hecla Pico de Adam 6. Pico de Adam in the Isle of Geilam 7. The Mountain Bructerus in Germany and Abnoba 8. The Mountain Figenojamma in Japan Figenojamma is supposed to exceed the Clouds in Altitude 9. The Mountain Caucasus much celebrated by the Ancients for its great height Caucasus The Mountain Pelion 10. The Mountain Pelion in Macedonia Pliny saith that Dicaearchus the Mathematician by the command and expence of some Kings measured the Altitude of this Mountain and found it to be 1250 paces that is 10 Stadia or â…“ of a German mile Geminus saith that the Mountain Cyllene was found by Dicaearchus to be of the same Altitude The Mountain Athos 11. The Mountain Athos as Mela in Lib. 2. Chap. 2. relateth is so elated that it is believed to rise higher than that showers should fall thence This Opinion received credit because that the Ashes are not washed away from the Altars that are on the top of it but remain in the heap as they were left in It runneth along with a great broad Ridge into the Sea where it adhereth to the Continent Xerxes making his Expedition against the Graecians dugg it through and made it Navigable 12. Olympus a Mountain of Asia minor Olympus of which we have spoken in the former Chapter 13. Casius Casius a Mountain in Asia which Pliny writeth to be four miles in height 14. Mount Haemus Haemus which Martianus Capella describeth to be 6 miles in Altitude 15. Atlas Atlas a Mountain in Africa of which we have spoken in the preceeding Proposition The Poets feigned this Mountain to be so high that it upheld Heaven but experience hath found the contrary Proposition IV. The many differences of Mountains In the former Propositions we have shewed three differences viz. The differences of Mountains 1. Some are extended in a long Tract and some are terminated in a small Circuit 2. Some divide the Regions in two parts others pass through any Tract of the Regions 3. Some are of an exceeding height some of a mean and some but low To these differences these may be added
Maffaeus relateth there is a Mountain which continually vomiteth Flames on the top of which the Evil Spirit sheweth himself to certain Persons after that they have macerated themselves for a Vow sake 10. Many Vulcanelloes are found in the Isles of Japan distant 70 miles from Ferando Also in a certain small Isle which lieth between Tanaxuma and the Isles called the Sisters a burning Mountain is discovered at other times smoaking Certain Vulcanes in the Isle Tendai 11. In Tendai one of the Philippine Isles where the Promontory of the Holy Spirit is certain Vulcans are found One also in the Isle Marindique another of the Philippine Isles 12. In Nicaragna a Province in America a lofty Mountain casteth forth flames in such great abundance that they may be seen 10 miles distant Vulcan Mountains in Cordillera 13. In the Ridge of Peru called Cordillera here and there are certain Rocks and Vulcan Mountains partly smoaking and partly burning and they are said to cast out fire Especially in the Province of Carrapa there is a Mountain from whose top when the Heaven is serene much smoak is discovered to be elevated Others in Peru 14. Near to Arequipa a City of Peru 90 miles distant from Lima a certain Sulphureous Mountain continually ejaculateth fire which is found dangerous to the City 15. In Peru near the Valley Mulahallow about 50 Leagues from Quito there is a Vulcan which once rending cast forth great Stones and terrified also the remote places with the huge noise Other Vulcans 16. In one of the Islands which they call Papoys which Le Maire discovered except peradventure it may adhere to the South Continent on the Oriental Coast of New Guiney is a Vulcan which at that time burned 17. Certain Mountains lying on the Oriental Shore of the River Jeniscea in the Country of the Tingesi beyond Ob towards the East by a journey of some weeks there are Vulcans as the Muscovites do report 18. Certain Mountains at the River Pesida beyond the Region of the Tingaesi A Vulcan in Liburnia 19. In Liburnia near the City Apollonia is a rocky Mountain from the top of which continually issueth smoak and flame In the Land adjoyning there are hot Fountains there are also certain Mountains which have now ceased to burn So the Isle Queimoda on the Coast of Brasil not far from the mouth of the Silver River in time past did burn so the Mountains in Congo or Angola which they term Vesbrande Bergen In the Isles of the Azores especially Tercera and St. Michael formerly the Earth burned in many places but now the smoak in some places is sometimes expelled hence also they have often Earthquakes The Isles of St. Helena and of the Ascension have also its Earth like unto these viz. a Dust Embers and Ashes so that in times past it is probably the Mountains of these Isles burned which is also manifest from the Sulphureous Earth and Coals which they call Smitskolen Now the cause of these Vulcans or burning Mountains is a Sulphureous bituminous Substance which is contained in such like Mountains Proposition VI. The Tanges of the Mountains some admit of no passage or opening some of many other some of one or another only Of the Tanges of the Mountains They are called Portae and also Thermopylae Of which the more noted are 1. The Thermopylae in Phocis from which this name was communicated to the rest 2. The Caspian Portae which as through a narrow passage are admitted into the Caspian Mountains 3. The Port of the Mountain Cordillera in Peru. 4. The Port of the Mountain which is extended between Abyssiue and Arabia Troglodytica through which they carry Provision and Grain from that Region unto this 5. In Caucasus the Sarmatick and Albanian Ports Proposition VII That Mountain is termed a Promontory which runneth forth in a certain Tract to the Sea or on the Shore is elevated above the adjacent places Of Promontories or Capes In Mapps they are called Capes or Heads among which the more noted are Cape of Good-hope 1. The Cape of Good-hope in Africa which must be passed by those that sail into India Cape Victoria 2. Cape Victoria in the end of the Streights of Magellan Cape Verd. 3. Cape Verd in the Angle or Point of Africa where the Shore windeth from West to East Cape Vincent 4. Cape Vincent in Spain Promontory or Cape of Atlas 5. The Promontory of Atlas so anciently called not a Cape because that Mariners some Ages past supposed that it could not be passable or that if any one had sailed beyond it yet he could not return back safe therefore this was the bound of their Navigation on the Coast of Africa Other Promontories may be seen in the Mapps Proposition VIII Vnto Mountains are opposed Caves and deep Abysses which are found in few places of the Earth Of Caves or deep Abysses In times past that Mephitick Cave in Island called the Cave of St. Patrick and that Cave in Italy called Grotta del Cane was famous In the Mountain of Fessano Beni Guazeval is a Cave that vomiteth forth fire In the Island Baruch adjoynig to Wales in England near the Sea is a Rock in which there is a Cave unto which if you apply your ear a noise like stroaks of Hammers upon Iron as in a Smith's shop may be heard Not far from the City Bessa in Aquitain is a Cave vulgarly called Du Souley in which in the Summer season a noise is heard like unto Thunder In many places betwixt the midst of the Mountains there are found Valleys so profound that they strike the Beholders with horrour and cause a giddiness CHAP. XI Of Mines Woods and Desarts MInes Woods and Desarts do ennoble certain Parts or Tracts of the Earth Of Mines Woods and Desarts concerning which although little can be proposed yet for an exact knowledge of the Terrestrial Superficies it will not be unnecessary to consider those Places and to design the Tracts and Limits of them which we shall briefly perform in this Chapter Proposition I. A Mine is a place in the Earth from which Metals Minerals or other sorts of Earth are dugg But because what is dugg up out of the Earth is various therefore all these Mines receive various denominations Of Mines as Mines of Gold Silver Copper Iron Marble Mines of precious Stones and the like The most famous of the Gold and Silver Mines are those of Peru and Castella Aurea Peru and Castella Aurea and Potosi rich in Mines the richest in the world for throughout all the Provinces of Peru are found Mines abounding with Gold and Silver yet not excluding the other Metals so that the Natives of Peru and the Spaniards in times past did boast that the Ground or Soyl of this Kingdom was Gold and Silver Girava a Spanish Writer testifieth at the City Quito are Mines which yield more Gold than Earth
hindred doth flow from more high places to places more low If therefore the place about the Shore was not so high as in the middle of the Ocean part of the Sea would flow from the middle of the Ocean to the Shore and would neither consist or be calm which yet is not found in the tranquillity of the Air. 2. If that the Ocean far remote from the Shores were more high than the Sea at the Shore that Altitude would be discovered a far longer interval than a Spherical Superficies doth admit of yea it would be seen from the same distance from which the parts of the Ocean intercepted between that Altitude and the Shore are seen And experience testifieth that it cannot be beheld from a greater distance but that by degrees the more remote part is detected after the more near when we come to Mediterranean places to the Shore And by how much any part is more vicine to the shore by so much it is first or by a larger interval beheld from the shore Therefore the part of the Ocean removed from the shore is not higher than that part that is nigh unto it Wherefore the Ocean is of the same Altitude every where both in the middle and at the shore and not higher than the Earth 3. Mariners in the midst of the Ocean and deep Sea although they apply their Mathematical Instruments yet find it no higher there than in the parts near the shore which certainly could not be if that the Sea had any Altitude elevated as a Tower or Mountain For as by Instruments we find the Altitude of Towers or Mountains above the subjected parts of the Earth so also if that there were any Altitude of the middle Ocean above the vicine parts it could not be obstructed and avoid the subtilty of Instruments 4. Also here and there in the middle of the Ocean are found Islands and that in great number in some parts which are near to the Continents or great Islands Therefore the middle of the Ocean is not higher than the Earth because it is not higher than the Shores of those Islands 5. No cause can be shew'd why Water in the middle of the Ocean should be higher and not flow into the Chanels of Rivers if that their Waters be more depresâ—ed For by experience we find that Water any where scituated moveth to the vicine parts and these are less high which have been the cause of so many inundations From these I think we sufficiently collect that the Waters of the Ocean are not higher than the shoars of the Land Seeing therefore the Altitude of very few shoars is elevated little more than the vicine Mediterranean Land and in most lesser seeing that the Altitude of the Lands from the shoars to the Mediterranean places increaseth and riseth into Hills thence we conclude that the superficies of the Ocean is not higher than the superficies of the Land Now that the Altitude of the Land from the shoars to the Mediterranean places augmenteth or that the Mediterranean places are higher than the shoars is proved from the flux of Rivers most of which arise in Mediterranean places and flow to the Ocean So then at least the Mediterranean parts are somewhat more elevated than the shoars because the flux is from these unto them for Water floweth from the more high parts to places more inferiour Now that some are somewhat depressed lower than the Water we shall not go about to deny but they are either defended by the height of their shoars or by banks or other interposed earth Now these Banks are raised for the most part not because of the great Altitude of the Ocean being tranquillous and in its natural state but by reason of its impetuous motion caused by the Winds or from some other cause Corollary Corollary Therefore they are deceived who will have the Waters of the Ocean to be higher than the Earth and flie to a miraculous providence by which the inundation of the Ocean on the Land and drowning of the World is hindred and restrained For we have shewed that the superficies of the Water and Earth are one and almost the same to wit spherical and that many parts of the Earth at least the shoars have a greater Altitude than the middle of the Ocean and that this is the cause that the Ocean cannot overflow the Lands Which greater Altitude if it be elevated in some shoars the Banks being broken or the Water being augmented or forced to them in great abundance cause inundations Neither is it altogether impossible or contrary to nature that the whole Earth should be covered with Water as we shall shew in the end of the Chapter Proposition III. Why the Sea being beheld from the shoar seemeth to arise in a greater Altitude and tumor by how much it is more remote The middle of the Ocean by some said to be many miles higher than the Shoars It is a fallacy of the sight or of the estimating faculty which hath brought many into this errour so that they have endeavoured to defend that the middle of the Ocean is many miles higher than the Shoars But it is a wonder that none of them have taken notice of daily Experiments in the ordinary course of our life in which this fallacy is sufficiently manifest For if that we look on any Pavement or floor stretched at length or any row of Pillars the more remote parts of the Pavement will appear more high than the vicine parts so that from thence from our place to the most remote the Floor will seem by degrees more and more to elevate which yet notwithstanding it is every where of the same Altitude After the same mode it is with the Waters of the Ocean for if on the Shoar you use a Geodetical Instrument commodious to measure places withal you shall find no elevation of the remote part of the Ocean above the Shoar but rather a little depression so that the Waters sink beneath the Horizon of the Shoars Those that are versed in the Opticks declare the cause of the fallacy Let A be the Eye See Scheme and let it survey the pavement or superficies of the Water extended at length unto the long space a e. Let the Angle a A e be divided into equal parts or four Angles which are e A d d A c c A b b A a from the right drawn A b A c A d to wit the more remote shall be far more great as appeareth from the Diagram viz. e d is greater than d e and d e greater than b c and b c than a h. Although these parts are very unequal yet they will appear equal because they appear under the equal Angles a A b b A c c A d d A c and the Estimative faculty will judge them to be removed an equal distance from the Eye A in which there is a great deception and therefore will judge the lines A b A c A d
A c to be A f A g A h A k as they are equal a b f g g h h k whence the parts b c cd d e seem elevated as if they were f g g h h k. Or more briefly because the Eye is more elevated to behold Objects remote than it is depressed at things near therefore remote things are judged to be elevated and those nigh depressed or because we compare the elevation of our Eye to parts vicine therefore we judge them depressed but we cannot so compare the elevation of our Eye to parts remote wherefore they seem more elevated than in truth they are So therefore we see from this that the Ocean to one that beholdeth it from the Shoar seemeth higher by how much it is the more remote from thence I say it is no probation that it is more elevated Some render another Reason viz. that therefore a greater Altitude is to be attributed to the middle of the Ocean than to the Earth by reason that they suppose that otherwise it cannot come to pass that water should flow from the Ocean to Fountains of Rivers which Fountains are in Mediterranean planes seeing that no water floweth but from an higher place unto one more low depressed But I shall shew it to be performed by another way in the Chapter where I treat of the Original of Rivers or Fountains And so also any one may inferr that the Mountain of Teneriff is not so high as also other Mountains as to be beheld in the Ocean for so long an interval at four degrees except that the foot of the Mountain or the Ocean be higher than the Sea at the Shoar of Teneriff But what Answer is to be returned to this is manifest from the Eleventh Chapter See Chap. II. whee we have treated of the Original or heights of Mountains Proposition IV. To exhibit the cause and Original of Gulphs Bays and Streights of the Ocean The cause of Gulphs Bays and Streights in the Ocean These Bays in proper manner of Speech are the Sinus of the Land not of the Ocean but rather Arms branches and procurrent parts of the Ocean But more properly we may term those to be sinus or Bays of the Ocean where the Ocean receiveth into it self Peninsula's of the Earth as where it receiveth Jutland the Chersonesus of Malacca California and the like But the usual mode of Speech hath so obtained that contrary to the nature of things the word is so taken in the first signification and a Sinus or Bay of the Ocean is the same with a branch or procurrent part of the Ocean The cause of Bays The cause of these Sinus or Bays is by reason that the extant parts of the Earth are in some places mutually rent from one another and divaricated so that the part of the Earth interposed between the divaricated parts is more depressed than the superficies of the Ocean therefore the water always tending to the more depressed part floweth into the divaricated parts and runneth forward so far until it meeteth the elevation of the Earth for here it can go no farther and therefore it receiveth its end or bound The same is the cause of the Streights of the Ocean or Sea The cause of the separation or divarication of the parts of the Earth which is required to the existence of Bays and Streights is the violent motion of the Sea when it is forced by Winds or some other cause which seeing that it is done almost every day so that it beateth the Lands with its waves thence it cometh to pass that in progress of time in some parts of the Shoars the Land is so shaken that it falleth on the rushing in of the Ocean and maketh way for it and if the Land adjoyning to the shoar be depressed Bays do more easily arise viz when the Land of the shoar is broken through the water will overflow the adjacent Lands and so make a Bay if that the land be so depressed or consist of so much matter which may easily be removed by the violent waves And so it is manifest that Bays and Streights may be made and exist anew but thence we may not conclude that all Bays and Streights that are at this day were so generated for it may be that some existed with the Earth it self or Ocean and therefore coeval with the very Ocean For there is no record of the making of any new Bay of the Sea or Streight although the Ancient Grecians fabulously reported such concerning the generation of the Gaditan or Herculean Streights viz. they said that the Mountain Calpe on the Spanish Coast and the Mountain Abyla on the African Coast were one Mountain but separated by Hercules whence they called these Mountains Hercules Pillars and the Streights Hercules Streights The Streights between Sicily and Italy But as concerning the Streights between Sicily and Italy which the Ancients believed to be caused by an incursion of the Sea we ought less to doubt that such small Streights should be generated for we deny not but such like may be generated at this day Also Bays may be made of Streights and Streights may become Bays For Example If that either of the Mouths of Magellans Streights or of the Streights of Manilhas should be obstructed those Streights would become long Bays on the contrary if that the Isthmus between Asia and Africa should be taken away then the whole Red Sea would become a Streight through which a Ship might sail from the Indian Ocean into the Mediterranean Sea Proposition V. Whether the Ocean every where be of the same Altitude That all the parts of the Ocean are of the same Altitude being in its natural constitution and all impediments removed is manifest from the first Proposition by which we shewed that the superficies of the Ocean is spherical and that its Center is the Center of the Earth hence it plainly followeth that it must be of the same Altitude in all its parts But here is a doubt whether there be not some causes that may render some parts of the Ocean more high than other This is most worthy of consideration and is also of great moment when we consult concerning the digging through of Isthmusses and conjoyning parts of the Sea Many will have that the Ocean and Earth is higher about the North and lower about the Equator So Aristotle lib. 2. De Coelo Cap. 2. they alledge this Reason That the Ocean seemeth to flow from the North Regions as from a Fountain But we cannot conclude any thing certain from this for whether the Northern Lands especially the North Channels be more high or lower than the Channels of the Lands near the Equator is yet doubted neither is it sufficiently proved from the motion because this is not general or is not found in all the Northern Regions And if this motion of the Ocean from the North should be granted yet thence it would not follow that the Ocean was there
the Winds 4. From the ruin or subsidency of the Channels or Shoars also if that the bottom of the Channel be made higher in progress of time by the fall of the Sand or Mud. Proposition VII The Ocean hath no Fountains but is contained within the Cavities of the Earth yet it doth not remain always the same The Ocean hath no Fountains Experience testifieth that waters of Rivers proceed from Fountains or Springs and because that this hath been for so many Centuries of years it thence necessarily followeth that that water which continually floweth from the Springs to the Sea returneth through subterranean passages or some other ways to the same Fountain After the same manner there were Philosophers in Old time said that the Sea sprang from certain Fountains Neither could the magnitude and perpetuity of the Ocean withdraw them from this Opinion for they said that it returned unto the same Fountains by some hollowness of the Earth or by some other mode that so they might render a cause of the perpetual flux This Opinion may be answered after this manner If that the Ocean have Fountains they must either be in the extant part of the Earth or in that part which is covered by the Ocean that is in the very Channel or bosom of the Ocean but they are not in the extant part of the Earth for Men have no where found them Neither may you object That peradventure they are in the unknown Lands of the North or South for this would be a part of high confidence to require that to be granted which carrieth no weight of reason with it especially seeing that at not a few of the Northern lands the Sea is found frozen up with Ice and in most of those Regions hitherto discovered no Springs are found Therefore the Fountains of the Ocean are not in the extant part of the Earth It remaineth that we prove that they 〈◊〉 neither in the part of the Earth covered with waters that is in the bosome of the Sea If that they were in this there would be no more distance from the Center of the Earth than the waters of the Ocean it self and therefore there would be no flux from them but the water would rest in them whose nature it is not to be moved from places depressed to places more high For the Fountains of all Rivers are more elevated than the waters that they send forth But some may object That this is a violent motion because that the Channel of the Ocean and the Land is perforated within with many hollownesses and pits call them what you please which proceed for a long Tract under the Earth until they are let into some other place of the Channel of the Ocean So that there are two Orifices of these Channels which may have a sufficient great Latitude and Extension within the Earth going forth into the Channel of the Ocean therefore it may be that the water from the Ocean may flow into one of these two Orifices and some forth of the other as from a Fountain which may be illustrated by an easie Diagram And by that reason that nothing hindreth but that there may be many of these subterraneous passages and no absurdity thence followeth therefore it may seem probable to some that there are many of these Fountains in the very Channel of the Sea But this imagination is vain and not agreable to the properties of water for water having fallen into either of these Channels would not go forth by the other Orifice but would rest filled in it except moved by some violent cause For although water should be pressed and stirred by water forcing in on the Orifice yet it could not exonerate it self by the other Orifice because that water incumbeth on this Orifice also no less than the incumbing water at the former Orifice which may thus be proved by experience See Scheme Let there be in any Vessel water ABCD AB is the superficies of the water lying equally and spherically but let in a stick RPEF into the middle of the vessel which may perforate it by an oblique passage so that the part of the vessel A shall be higher than the whole of the part of the vessel B therefore the water as well on the part A as on the part B should for example flow through g h into this passage and fill it up and should not be effused through either of the Orifices not through g because this is higher nor through h because though it be more depressed than g yet the water flowing from the part B and perpendicularly tending to the bottom of the vessel would prohibit the influx From these it is manifest that the Ocean hath no Fountain but is perpetually contained within its own Channel But somewhat may be objected against this Objections which is worthy of consideration First That at some part or other of the Ocean there is always a violent external moving cause as Winds Fluxes Refluxes mutations of the Earth and the like Therefore these cause that sometimes in some one part of the Ocean and sometimes in another there is a greater Altitude and abundancy of water than in the other parts and therefore that higher water falling into the subterraneous passages is again poured forth into another part of the Channel of the Ocean where there is a lesser Altitude of water by reason of that external cause and where the incumbent water then less resisteth the eruption or efflux because it is moved another way by an external cause for although this may be yet it cannot be proved by experience neither can the contrary that is this be demonstrated to be so therefore at least the truth is uncertain and we must doubt concerning this Problem Now that there are such subterraneous pits or passages in the Channel of the Ocean cannot be denied and those places of the Ocean seem to shew them to wit where there is an immense profundity seeing there is no such in the vicine parts To this I answer although we should admit of those subterraneous passages yet therefore it doth not follow that we should grant that they proceed to another part of the Channel of the Ocean or go forth into it and if that this should be granted yet seeing that there are no such passages in all places and that these external causes sometimes are predominate in one part of the Ocean and sometimes in another there is no consequence from the objection that the Fountains of the Ocean are in any certain place but that it floweth sometimes from one part of the Channel and sometimes from another so that that flux continueth no longer than the external cause continueth 2. Some one may thus seem to argue The flux of the Ocean is perpetually discerned from the Northern Land or quarter toward the South between Europe and the Northern America also between Asia and the Northern America Yet notwithstanding no part of the Ocean or
vicine place is to be found whereby it may come unto those Northern Regions Seeing that therefore this flux is perpetual neither doth the water come by a manifest way unto those Regions whence the flux is made therefore it seemeth necessary to conclude that the waters come through subterraneous passages unto those Northern Regions and so there to be effused from the holes of the Channel as from a spring and that the water moveth hence towards the South There falleth in another cause taken from the former For the water of the Ocean in the Torrid Zone is more heavy than that in the Northern places by reason of the great abundance of Salt as we have proved in the Eighth and Twelfth Proposition Therefore the water or Ocean in the Torrid Zone doth more press through the Orifices of the Subterranean passages than in the Northern places and therefore in these places the water less resisting suffereth the water to flow from the Orifices of the Channels Unto this I answer That that flux of the Ocean is not only from the North as the Objection seemeth to inferr and as some especially the Ancients conceived of it who would have the water to flow in four Channels from the very Pole as also some Geographical Maps do exhibit it neither is it continual but is observed by reason of the frequency of Northern Winds moreover the great and perpetual abundance of Snow and Rain in those places augmenteth the water and causeth it to flow towards the South Add likewise that in other parts another motion of the Ocean is found concerning which see the following Chapter 3. It seemeth not absurd but rather most true that all the Fountains of Rivers taken together disburthening themselves into the Ocean are the very Fountains of the Ocean For seeing that in perpetual progress of time so great an abundance of water floweth from them into the Ocean questionless the water cometh from the Ocean to the very Springs and Channels of the Rivers partly through the Subterranean passages and partly by Rains 4. It may seem to prove that the Fountains of the Ocean may be in the very Channel because that in the bottom of the Ocean in some parts sweet or fresh water is found which could not be but by some Fountains flowing in the bottom Linschaten relateth that in Ormus fresh water is drawn by divers in the Ocean at the depth of four or five Orgya and the like Fountains are found in other parts of the Ocean and Bays Unto this I answer That few such Springs have yet been found which suffice not the vast Ocean Neither do we dispute concerning these Fountains as we have said before Hence it is manifest that in some sort it is true and we may well say that the Ocean hath Springs but not in that sense that we are wont to speak concerning the Springs of Rivers and in which we would have our Proposition to be taken Hence also it is manifest what we ought to think concerning that Question viz. Whether the Sea is always one and the same and perpetually so remaineth or whether it be another thing whose parts are perpetually consumed and generated again Proposition VIII The saltness of the Waters proceedeth from the particles of Salt which are mixed with it but whence they may exist or are so augmented is the doubt Of the Saltness of the Sea-water Experlence proveth the first member of the Proposition by which it is commonly known that Salt is made of Sea-water by decoction of the water or by the heat of the Sun or the fervour of the Fire In Germany and other places the water is separated by the help of the Fire In France the greater heat of the Sun performeth the same the Ocean being let into certain Trenches made in which in the space of some Months the water being exhaled by the force of the Sun Of Salt and of what made concreted and hard Salt is found On the shoars of many Regions as of England and other parts plenty of Bay-Salt is found the Sea-water continually overflowing those shoars leaveth daily some particles or humors from which the water exhaleth and concrete Salt is left whose blackness is taken away by boyling although it be washed away and dissolved from many Coasts by the violence of the Ocean which is the cause that it is not found on all Coasts Seeing therefore that this Experiment is common Aristotle had small reason to alledge a false Experiment concerning a waxen Vessel let down into the Sea Hence it is manifest that the proximate cause of the Saltness of the Sea-water or the true subject of this saltness is the Saline particles which are contained in that water Therefore the Aristotelians with their Master spake improperly and obscuredly without cause when they defend and say That the saltness of the Sea proceedeth from the adustion of the Sea caused by the Sun or from the adust particles But of this more anon The chief difficulty and controversie is concerning the other member of the Proposition Whence these Salt particles of the Ocean exist Aristotle supposeth that dry exhalations or fumes all which he saith are of an adust and Saline nature elevated from the Earth are mixed with humid vapours and when that these have met together in Rain they fall with these into the Sea and that thence proceedeth the saltness and Salt particles in the Sea See Aristotle lib. 2. chap. 7. and on this account he seemeth to defend this Opinion because that from thence he may render a reason why the Sea is always salt But other Peripateticks will have it and so do endeavour to draw Aristotle to their part that this saltness is in the Sea it self by reason that it is perpetually scorched by the heat of the Sun a sign of which is that the water is found by so much the less salt by how much it is more deep or remote from the superficies for in the superficies we discover it to be most salt Both these Opinions are obstructed with great difficulties and absurdities so that it seemeth wonderful that the minds of Philosophers and Learned men could acquiesce in them First the opinion of Aristotle is thus obstructed that Salt-rain should be found in the Ocean which never yet was found to be void of all tast of salt Secondly the Sea should be less salt when it raineth not for a long time the contrary of which yet is found The other Opinion hath these difficulties 1. It is false that the waters of the Ocean are found the less salt by how much they are nigh to the bottom for there are few places viz. in those bottoms where Springs of fresh water do flow 2. Experience testifieth that fresh water although long exposed to the Sun or heat of the Fire yet doth not become salt This Objection Scaliger endeavoureth to avoid by an over-nice subtilty for he saith that this hapneth in these Observations by reason of
the exiguity of the water which doth not grow thick but resolveth For although you take a great quantity of water and that you provoke with a light and gentle fire that the resolution may be impeded yet the water acquireth no salt tast 3. Lakes and Marshes though heated by the Sun yet wax not salt This Objection also Scaliger endeavoureth to avoid saying that this hapneth by the succession of fresh water And the same is found in those standing Pools and Lakes which only proceed from Rain or Snow dissolved where there is no place for that refuge of succession for those Lakes are rather dried when that it raineth not for a long space than turned into Salt or rendred salt Therefore rejecting those false Opinions concerning the cause and original of Salt in the Ocean let us lay hold of one of the most probable Opinions with little or no difficulty in it viz. 1. That these particles are Coeternal with the very Ocean and therefore we should no more dispute concerning their original than concerning the original of the Ocean it self the Earth yea and of the original and generation of the World 2. If that this Opinion be less complacent we may make choice of another viz. that these salt particles are here and there pulled from the Earth and so dissolved into water Now it is certain that there are many saline Mountains or Rocks in the bosom of the Sea Isle of Ormus a salt Rock The whole Isle of Ormus is nothing else but a white and hard Salt of which they make the Walls of their Houses and therefore no Fountain of fresh water is found in that Isle And none can be ignorant how that many mines of Salt are found on the Land and we have related concerning some in the Eleventh Chapter but we need not particulars Let us consider the whole Earth The greatest part of the Earth hath much Salt in it the greatest part of which is nothing else but a Salt for it hath its consistency from Salt for the Chymical Philosophers do rightly prove that the consistency and compaction of every thing proceedeth from Salt and Experience is answerable to the Assertion for if that you take an hard piece of Earth and burn it to ashes much Salt will be found in it Nothing can be alledged against this Opinion that is of any value and is not easily refuted for some say that it is impossible that those salt parts of the Earth should perpetually suffice and should not at some time or other be consumed by the water of the Ocean which continually taketh away some part of them Unto this I answer That the Salt of the Ocean is not consumed in so great abundance that it should stand in need of much instauration and if that any be consumed yet notwithstanding that is laid up in another place seeing that it is not removed out of the Earth Proposition IX Whether that Water be the fresher in the Ocean by how much it is nigher the bottom and why in some parts of the Ocean fresh Water is found in the bottom Of the freshness of Water in the Sea Unto the first I Answer That experience doth not testifie concerning that sweetness but in some places of which the other Question speaketh that in these places in the bottom of the Sea are Fountains of fresh water I have sufficiently said for it cannot naturally be that the more Salt-water should exist above water less Salt seeing that that is more heavy Those places of the Sea where fresh water is found to spring at the bottom may be collected by those that are studious from the Writers of Geography Proposition X. The Water of the Ocean becometh less salt by how much it is nearer the Poles and on the contrary the more salt by how much it is more near the Aequator or Torrid Zone Although this may be understood of most parts of the Ocean yet the Proposition admitteth of some exceptions The cause of this inequality in saltness is sixfold The Causes of the inequality of the saltness of the Sea in different places 1. That the heat of the Sun in the Torrid Zone lifteth up more vapours from the Ocean into the Clouds than in the Northern places which are the vapours of fresh-water because that the particles of Salt by reason of their gravity are not so easily lifted up Seeing therefore that from the Water of the Ocean of the Torrid Zone or where the place is more near the Torrid Zone so much the vapours are separated by the heat of the Sun thence it cometh to pass that the water that is lest is found more salt there than in the Northern places where there is not so much fresh-water separated by reason of the weak heat of the Sun The 2d Cause 2. The second Cause is the heat or cold of the water for the same numerical water or salt meat as also pickled meat sauce and the like afford a more sensible saltness to the tast when they are eaten hot than when cold for the heat or particles of the fire do move and render the particles of the salt contained in such meat more acute and separates them from the admixtures whence they bite and prick the Tongue more sharply Now because the water of the Ocean is the more hot by how much it is nigher the Aequator or the parallels of the Sun at every day and contrariwise the more cold by how much it is more near the Pole thence it followeth that waters though they should contain the same quantity of salt yet they must seem and appear so much the salter to the tast by how much they are nearer to the Torrid Zone and by how much they are more near the Pole by so much they have less sensible Salt The 3d Cause 3. The third Cause is the more or less quantity of Salt in the diverse parts of the Channel of the Ocean for as we find in the parts of the Earth that there are not pits of Salt in them all neither where they are found is there the like quantity of Salt must be held concerning the part of the Earth that the Sea washeth or covereth that is the Channel or the Shoars where there is therefore most quantity of Salt or Mineral in the bottom or shoar of the Ocean there the water is more salt because that it is impregnated with a greater quantity of Salt So the Isle of Ormus consisteth all of Salt therefore the adjacent Ocean hath very Salt waters But whether there be greater plenty of Salt in the Channel and shoars of the Ocean in the Torrid Zone or more saline Mines than in the North is very doubtful by reason of the want of observation yet it seemeth probable unto some that there is greater quantity of Salt in those places by reason of the greater heat of the Sun by which the parts of the water are separated from the Terrestrial and
Salt but this is a deceitful sign The 4th Cause 4. The fourth Cause of the unequal saltness is the frequency or scarcity of Rains unto which we may add Snow and in the Northern places Snow and Rain is frequent in the places of the Torrid Zone they are less frequent in some parts of the year and in othersome they are almost continual And therefore in these places in the pluvial Months the water of the Ocean is not so salt on the shoar and hath less Salt in it than in the dry Months Yea in many Regions of the Coast of Malabar the Ocean is fresh in the pluvial Months by reason of the abundance of water that floweth from the top of the Mountain Gatis and falleth into the Sea for this very reason in divers Seasons of the year the same Ocean is of a various saltness yet because in the Northern places the Rains and Snows are continual throughout the whole year therefore this Sea is less salt than in the Torrid Zone The 5th Cause 5. The fifth Cause is the dissimilary solution or unequal faculty of the Water to dissolve this Salt and unite it to its self for hot water sooner uniteth Salt unto it self than cold Water although therefore in the Northern places of the Ocean the shoars and Channels of the same contain more or the like quantity of Salt that those places of the Torrid Zone do yet because the water is there more cold it is not so able to dissolve and unite the Salt to it self so subtily us the water in the Torrid Zone which is more hot The 6th Cause 6. The sixth cause is the exoneration of many and great Rivers into the Sea but this cause only taketh place in the parts of the Ocean that are vicine to the shoars but is not discovered in the remote parts So Mariners affirm that the Ocean on the Coast of Brasilia where the Silver-River disburtheneth it self loseth it saltness and affordeth fresh waters fifteen miles distant from the shoar The same is observed of the African Ocean on the Coasts of Congi where the River Zaire exonerateth it self and of many more Rivers Unto these add runing Fountains in some parts of the bottom of the Ocean These are the Causes which seem to concur to the variety and diversity of saltness in divers parts of the Ocean from which the saltness of every one of the Seas may be explained From whence also it is easy to give an account why the water of the German and Northern Ocean is less apt to separate Salt from it self by coction than the water of the Spanish Ocean the Canary Isles and that of Cape Verd whence the Dutch fetch Salt in great abundance and transport it into the Northern Regions viz. this Ocean is more near the Torrid Zone and receiveth water from the Ocean of the Torrid Zone the other is more remote from the Frigid Zone yet I cannot deny the constitution of the Channels themselves to be more or less saline The Sea-water at Guinee in the Ethiopick Ocean affordeth Salt at one coction as white as snow such as neither the Spanish Ocean nor any other in Europe do produce at one coction or boyling Proposition XI Why Rain-water in the middle of the Ocean is found sweet but the water which we separate from the Marine or Salt-water either by decoction or distillation is yet notwithstanding found salt when yet the Rain-water proceedeth from the Vapours exhaled from the Sea Fresh-water abstracted from Salt-water The Learned Chymists or true Naturalists have hitherto laboured in vain that they might find out an Art by which they might distill and abstract fresh water from the water of the Ocean which would be of great advantage but as yet their Labours have proved fruitless for although as well in the decoction as distillation Salt may be left in the bottom of the Vessel yet the water separated by decoction as well as distillation is yet found salt and not fit for men to drink which seemeth wonderful unto those that are ignorant of the cause Yet Chymistry that is true Philosophy hath taught the reason for by the benefit of this we know that there is a twofold salt in Bodies or two kinds of salt which although they agree in tast yet they much differ in other qualities one of these Artists term fixed the other volatile salt The fixed salt by reason of its gravity is not elevated in distillation but remaineth in the bottom of the Vessel but the volatile salt is full of spirit and indeed is nothing else but a most subtile spirit that is elevated by a very light fire and therefore in the distillation ascendeth with the fresh water and is more firmly united by reason of the subtilty of the Attoms neither is this volatile salt found only with fixed salt in Sea-water but almost in all bodies as Chymistry proveth by experience but in some in a greater and in othersome in a lesser quantity in a greater quantity in sharp tasted Herbs in a lesser in oily Herbs Therefore difficulty consisteth in the separation of this salt spirit or volatile salt from the water But why the pluvial water in the midst of the Sea is no less fresh than on the Land seeing that yet it is generated by abstraction of the exhalations of the Ocean caused by the fervour of the Sun or from some subterraneous fire which evaporation doth little differ from distillation The cause seemeth to be Fourfold 1. A slow operation by which the tenuous part is only elevated from the Ocean which although it containeth a saline volatile spirit yet it hath it in less quantity than if that this exhalation were caused by a more forcible heat 2. The long way that this vapour passeth through before that it arriveth unto that Region of the Air where it is condensated into rain in passage it is possible that the saline spirit is by degrees separated from the watery particles 3. The admixture of other watery particles existing in the air 4. A Refrigeration Coition and condensation of the vapour for these exhalations exhaled from the Ocean by degrees are more and more refrigerated and being conjoyned with other obvious and admixed vapours they condense into a more thick vapour or cloud in this Refrigeration and condensation or coition of the saline spirit with the fiery particles they fly into the more exalted part of the Air. Now why the same is not performed in distillation where the vapours exalted are also condensed the cause is 1. That by reason of the small passage the saline spirit is as yet over straitly conjoyned to the watery particles 2. That the vapour restrained in the vessel admitteth not a free passage to the evolant spirit Proposition XII Sea-water is more ponderous than fresh water and the water of one Sea is more heavy than another Sea water more heavy than fresh water The cause is manifest from what hath been said
by reason that the Sea water containeth a fixed salt which is a far more weighty body than fresh water And we have shewed that in divers parts of the Sea there is a divers quantity of salt Yet doth it not follow that water is more heavy by how much it is the more salt which doth not augment the gravity but lesseneth it and yet rendreth the water very salt Proposition XIII Salt water doth not so easily freez as fresh or a greater dègree of cold is required to the congelation of Sea water than of fresh Salt water doth not so soon freez as fresh Experience sufficiently sheweth this against the Aristotelians who defend that water is so much the lesser obnoxious to congelation by how much it is the more pure and therefore should more easily congeal as receding more from the elementary water which is false Now the cause is that in the salt it self their is a certain spirit which resisteth congelation and being seperated from the salt admitteth of no congelation from the hardest frost as those that are skilful in Chymistry know For the spirit of salt is a medicament sufficiently known and of frequent use Proposition XIV Why the Ocean is not bigger seeing that it receiveth so many Rivers The cause is 1. That the water returneth to the Sea through subterraneous passages unto the fountains of the Rivers as shall be explicated in the following Chapter 2. Because that many vapours are elevated from the Ocean whereof many being resolved into rain fall into the Ocean and part on the land Proposition XV. Certain parts of the Ocean differ in colour The water in the Ocean in all places not of one and the same colour Experience testifieth that in the Northern places the Sea seemeth of a more black colour in the Torrid Zone of a duskish colour in other places of a blew About certain shoars of new Guinee the Ocean is found of a white colour in some other place of a yellow In Streights the water appeareth to incline to white at the Shoars of Congi not far from Bay a D'Alvaro Gonzales a Rivulet or an Arm is disburthened into the Sea of somewhat a Redish colour taken from a mine of red earth through which it floweth But the Arabian Gulph called therefore the Red Sea by reason of the property of the colour some will have the denomination taken from King Erythreus others from the splendour which the Raies of the Sun repercussed doth effect But the more probable opinion and that which is confirmed from experience is that the redness doth arise from the sand of a red colour which is found in the bottom of this Sea and on the Shoars and is frequently admixed with the water The water in the Red Sea only red by reason of the red sâ—â—â—â— in it The cause of this admixture which seemeth contrary to the ponderousness of sand is the vehemency of the flux and reflux of the water or its swiftness and agitation in this Sea by which it cometh to pass that the sand or gravel is agitated and moved up and down and so hindred by the continual motion of the Sea that it cannot rest Mariners affirm that the water of this Sea sometimes appeareth as red as blood but if taken up in a vessel the sand will sink down and then the water appeareth otherwise It often happens that storms from the Red Sea rushing into Arabia or Africa carry with them so great an abundance of sand and cast it on the earth that it covereth whole troops of men and beasts whence proceedeth the true Mummie Whether from the same or another cause the Sea between California and America be termed red Vermejo I have not as yet found it observed by Writers Proposition XVI Certain peculiar things are found in certain parts of the Ocean Of things in the Ocean peculiar to certain places The Sea termed Di Sargasso by the Portugals which beginneth not far from Cape Verd in Africa about the Isles of Salt and extendeth it self from the 20th degree of Northern Latitude unto the 34th of South Latitude The colour of this Sea seemeth to be green which is not the colour of the Sea it self but of a certain small leaved herb in the bottom of it called by the Portugals Sargasso The leaves of this weed mutually complicated one into another swim on the face of this Ocean in so continued a tract that the water can hardly be seen so that the Seamen afar off discovering this Ocean take it for an Island and green Land neither can they pass through this knot of weeds except that they be helped by a moderate wind at least the herb beareth a small berry whence it ariseth is not yet known Seeing that this Sea is not so near any land that it should have its original from them neither is it probable that it should come from the bottom of the Sea by reason that the profundity of this Sea is such that in many places it exceedeth the length of any line or cord In the Ocean not far from the Promontory of Good Hope are many floating red-like shrubs of a great thickness discovered unto which the herb Sargasso is implicated Seamen take it for a certain that if they see them thereabouts that they are near to the Promontory of Good Hope or else have just past it Corral found on the Shoar of Madagascar On the Shoar of the Isle of Madagascar the Ocean casteth up red and white Coral which augment like shrubs under the water and although that they be soft in some places yet between Madagascar and Africa there are reported to be Rocks of hard Coral In the Baltick Ocean nigh to the Shoar of Borussia the Shoar casteth forth most excellent succinum which the Inhabitants are taught when certain winds do blow to draw up with certain Iron hooks Amber only in the Ocean in the Torrid Zone The Ocean casteth up Amber only in the Torrid Zone viz. at the Shoar of Brazile where a peece of 500 l. weight was taken up by a Dutch Soldier and presented unto Count Nassaw at the Isle of Madagascar at Cape Verd at the Isle of Maurice at the Isle of Sumatra and other Indian Isles Garcias relateth that a piece of 200 l. weight was found yea that some Islands consist wholly of Amber but he doth not name them In the Aethiopick Ocean at Guinea Congo and Angola this is peculiarly observed that at the sides of the Keil of the Ship whilst that they remain there green Cockles like unto grass do stick which hindreth the sailing of the Ships and eateth the wood On the Coast of Languedock in France Birds unshaped first of all then by degrees they receive form and fixing of their bill in the wood when they begin to move by degrees they are pulled off and swim on the water like Geese The excrement of the Ocean termed the Scum of the Sea is found floating in
many places but in some in greater quantity than in others Serpents on the Coast of Malabar On the Coast of Malabar and at Cambaja Serpents are discovered on the superficies of the water this is a sign to Sea-men that they are near to those Regions About four miles from New Spain many Roots Bulrushes and Leaves like unto Fig-leaves float on the water which they eat and are in tast like unto Coleworts In the description of the first Navigation of the Dutch unto the Streights of Magellan we read that on the 12th of January in Anno 1599. the water of the Ocean not far from the Silver-River or Rio de laplata in Brasil appeared of a red and bloody colour but being drawn up in a bucket or the like when that they had more throughly viewed it they found that an innumerable multitude of Worms of a red colour were contained in that water and being taken up in the hand they leaped like unto Fleas And these Seamen call Sea-fleas and they are supposed to come from an innumerable company of small Crabs which being found on the South Continent fill the Sea Here is no place to treat of the Animals of which there are various kinds in divers places of the Sea Proposition XVII Why the Sea in the Night season seemeth to glitter especially if that the Waves be raised the more vehemently by the Winds The Sea in the Night seemeth to glitter or shine This question requireth the knowledge of that difficulty concerning the causes of Colours Divers are the resolutions of Philosophers concerning them but as for the explication of the proposed phenomenon or Question that Opinion seemeth the most commodious which sheweth how Colours do exist or rather appear from a certain and various motion but we leave the accurate explication of the same to Naturalists Proposition XVIII The Ocean or rather all Water casteth out Terrestrial Bodies on the shoar especially in the Full Moon Terrestrial bodies are cast out of the Ocean on the Shore It is not difficult to render an account of this property which Experience sufficiently testifieth For Water is never without some motion which if it be swift and towards one quarter it carrieth Terrestrial bodies with it until it meeteth with the shoar where by reason of the ceasing vigour of the motion of the water those Terrestrial bodies are laid down but in the Ocean the Waves are carried hither and thither By these the Terrestrial bodies are carried after the same mode and because that all Waves tend to some coast of Land therefore all Terrestrial bodies are carried towards the shoar In the Full Moons is the greatest motion of the Ocean therefore vain is their Opinion who believed the Ocean to be an Animal and to have sense by which it purgeth it self from all dregs Terrestrial bodies but here the cause is sufficiently manifest CHAP. XIV Of the Motions of the Sea in general and in particular of the Flux and Reflux Proposition I. Water hath no natural Motion except one by which it moveth from a more higher place unto these that are more low but if the vicine place or body be equal or of a greater Altitude than the superficies of the Water then the Water naturally resteth that is it is not moved except that it be compelled by a violent cause Water hath no natural motion except one THe truth of this Proposition is manifest from Vulgar experience for if that a vessel containing water be moved the water so long fluctuateth in it until no part be higher than the other that is until they compose a Spherical figure or superficies as we have said in the Thirteenth Chapter For although this Motion hath a violent cause viz. the motion of the Air about the Earth yet because that there is a great question concerning this cause and it is so manifest in the water that it seemeth not to come unto it from an external cause so for to distinguish this motion of the water from other motions we term it Natural Now this motion is unto that quarter unto which the place more depressed is scituated Proposition II. When part of the Ocean is moved the whole Ocean is moved or all the other parts of it are also moved but by so much the more that every one is nearer the part moved For because that if part of the Ocean be moved it doth necessarily change place and therefore this place is more low than the place of the vicine water this nearer water shall be moved into this place and the vicine water of that into the place of that and so forward in the other parts But there is lesser motion in the places of the more remote parts Proposition III. To observe the quarter into which the Sea that is moved tendeth The quarter into which the Sea that is moved tendeth Chuse a time if you can when no violent Wind bloweth and cast into the Water a body almost of the same gravity with the water let the place be observed where it was cast in to wit let the Boat remain there immovable then when that this body is carried by the Sea a moderate space from the place where it was cast in then let another Boat be placed of that and let the quarter be observed into which the scituation of this second Boat vergeth from the former For this also shall be the quarter in which we say that the Sea at that time is moved Proposition IV. The Motion of the Sea is either direct or a Vortex or a Concussion I call that direct which tendeth unto some quarter a Vortex when the water moveth into a round and is in some part rejected a concussion when it trembleth But laying aside the two latter unto the end of the Chapter we shall treat of the direct motion and therefore we shall call this by a general term the Motion of the Sea Proposition V. Of the Motions which we find in the Sea some are general some proper and singular other some contingent General proper and singular motions of the Sea I call that General which is found almost in all the parts of the Ocean and that at all times I call those proper and special motions by which only some parts of the Ocean are moved and they are twofold perpetual and anniversary the former are those which persist without mutation or cessation the other which are found at certain months or days of the year in some certain Sea I call those motions of the Sea contingent which without any certain order sometimes do cease and other some begin such are infinite Proposition VI. Wind is the cause of the contingent motion of the Sea forcing the Sea to a quarter opposit to the Wind neither is the Sea ever free from such motions Wind is the cause of the motion of the Sea For seeing that the Air toucheth the Sea and the Wind is nothing else but a strong commotion of
flux or deflux yea those terms are not apt enough but it is better to call it an Intumescency and Detumescency so that by these peculiar appellations the quality of the flux or motion may be distinguished from the motion or flux it self For the Sea always floweth from the East to the West and only appeareth to re-flow by reason that when in one place there is a greater quantity of water and that it floweth with vehemency to a certain place afterwards in another time this impetus ceaseth But it is therefore termed a reflux because that the Sea seemeth in Bays and Shores to draw near and depart According to the extension of bays and shores which hapneth not by reason of the quality of the Motion it self but by reason of the scituation of Coasts and Channels viz. that the Water doth return back to a contrary quarter but that the Sea falleth down this proceedeth not from the scituation of the Coasts but from the condition of the place it self Neither ought or can the motion of the Sea be regarded from the appulse to the shore for whatsoever the motion of the Sea be or unto what quarter soever it be made the flux is always towards the shore which is by reason of the fluid nature of the water Now seeing that both the flux or reflux or in the intumescency and detumescency the Sea is moved towards the same quarter viz. from the East to the West and doth not re-flow again is collected from hence First that in the Ocean removed from the shores under the Torrid Zone no other motion is found than that by which it is carried from the East to the West Secondly In the Streights which directly extend from East to West and in which the parts of the Ocean are joyned as the Streights of Magellan Manillan Java and others amongst the Indian Isles In these Streights I say the Sea indeed swelleth and falleth in twelve hours but yet the Sea in the detumescency doth flow back from out the Streights from the West to the East therefore another orifice of the Streight into the West which is a manifest sign that this intumescency and detumescency is not a peculiar motion but a modification of the general motion neither doth the Sea flow back into the East Therefore Scaliger and all others are deceived which here introduce a double motion replicated into it self But yet this must be understood that when we say that this motion is made from the East to the West the Cardinal quarters are not only understood but also those quarters that are collateral viz. the Sea is moved also by this flux from the Collateral quarters of the East unto the Collateral quarters of the West yea unto the North and South but not by so forcible and valid motion Proposition XI To declare the cause of the intumescency and detumescency of the Sea or the flux and reflux vulgarly so termed The cause of the flux and reflux of the Sea There is almost no phaenomenon of Nature that hath more exercised the wits of Learned men and Philosophers and that hath deluded more endeavours Some have made the Sea and Earth to be an Animal which by its inspiration and expiration hath caused the flux and reflux Others make the cause to be a great Vortex near to Norway which for six hours sucketh up the water and for so many spueth them out again Scaliger and Others supposed the Coasts especially those of America to be the cause thereof by reason that they repel the appulse of the Sea which proceedeth from the general motion But many when that they discover the connexion of this intumescency and detumescency with the motion of the Moon determined that it only depended on that But how this should be is a more than ordinary task to discover seeing that they reply nothing else but that the Moon doth attract upwards humors by an occult quality and sympathy But these are only words which signifie nothing else but that the effect is caused by the Moon after some mode that we are ignorant of but this is the mode demanded Cartesius deduceth it from his general Hypothesis after this manner Let the Diagram of the Ninth Proposition be taken See Scheme in which let A B C D be that Vortex which hath the Earth for its Center which with it and with the Moon is carried in a greater Vortex about the Sun M the Center of the Vortex E F G H the Earth 1234 the superficies of the Sea from which for the greater perspicuity we do suppose the Earth to be encompassed on every side and 5678 the superficies of the Air encompassing of the Sea Now if that there were no Moon in this Vortex the point T which is the Center of the Earth ought to be in the point M which is the Center of the Vortex but the Moon being towards B this Center of the Earth T ought to be between M and D by reason that the Celestial matter of this Vortex is somewhat more quicker moved than the Moon or the Earth which it carrieth with it Except that the point T were a little more distant from B than from D the presence of the Moon would hinder that that should not so freely flow between B and T so seeing that the place of the Earth in this Vortex is not determinated excâ—â—â— from the equality of the strength of the Celestial matter flowing about it therefore it is evident that it ought somewhat to approach towards D. And after the same mode when the Moon shall be in C the Center of the Earth ought to be between M and A and so always the Earth departeth a little from the Moon Moreover because by this means from this that the Moon is towards B not only the space through which the Celestial matter floweth between B and T but also that space through which it floweth between T and D is rendred more angust thence it followeth that this Celestial matter there floweth more swiftly and therefore doth more press both the superficies of the Air in 6 and 8 and also the superficies of the Water in 2 and 4 than if that the Moon were not in the Diameter of the Vortex B D Now seeing that both the bodies of the Air and Water are fluid and easily obnoxious to this pression they ought not to be so high above the parts of the Earth F and H as if the Moon were without this Diameter B D and so also on the contrary they ought to be higher towards G and E so that the superficies of the Water 1 and 3 and of the Air 5 and 7 do there protuberate Now because that part of the Earth which is now in F on the opposite quarter of the point B where the Sea is very little high after six hours it will be in G on the opposite Region of the point C where it is most high and after other six hours in H on the Region of
place may make the motion of the Sea fixed in another place The flux of the Sea in divers places at certain times So between the Isle Celebes and Madera when that the motion is West viz. in December January and February the Sea floweth to the South East or a more near Collateral wind than the East So at Java in the Streight Gallappa when the motion is West viz. in May the Sea floweth towards the East contrary to his general Motion At the Isle of Ceilan from the middle of March to October the Sea floweth towards the South on the rest of the Months towards the North viz. because that in those Months the North winds are frequent in others the South winds Between Cochin and Mallacca the Sea floweth with a Westernly motion from April to August contrary to the general motion towards the East then the rest of the time towards the West the winds assisting the general motion the Sea floweth here with so great a noise that those who know not the same suppose Rocks to be there against which the waters beat so for some months after the 15 of February the Sea is moved from the Maldivian Isles towards the East and India contrary to the general motion At the Coast of China and Camboja in October November and December the Sea is moved towards the North-West but in January towards the South-West with a very swift course to the Sands de Champa so that they seem to exceed the celerity of a stone that is slinged At Pulo Cato even unto Varella on the coast of Camboja when motions or winds do not blow the swift motion of the Sea is towards the South but the motions or winds move towards another quarter On the Coast of the Gulph of Bengala from Patana to the Promontory of Malacca in November and December a swift course of the Sea is observed towards the South In a motion or wind from China to Malacca in June July and August there is a vehement motion of the Sea from Pulo Cato to Pulo Cambir on the Coast of Camboja Many more Examples but less accurately consigned are to be read in the Journals of the Mariners At the Coast of Aguada de san Bras not far from the Promontory of Good Hope this is peculiarly observed that the Sea is always moved from the East to the West towards the land so much the more vehemently by how much the Occidental wind opposite unto it is more violent Questionless some adjacent Coast higher than it is the cause of it Proposition XXXI The circular motions of the Sea are threefold The cirçular motions of the Sea termed Whirlpools and Vortices are threefold For some only move the water in a round othersome suck in the water and in certain hours let it forth again and others suck it in but cast it not forth Although without doubt there be a fourth sort in the Channel of the Sea which casteth out and sucketh not in the waters Yet I do not remember that I have read in any Author such a Vortex to be found in the Sea but many are found on the land The Chalcidican Euripus or Vortex is famous in Greece especially by reason of the Fable concerning the death of Aristotle it receiveth water at certain hours and casteth them out in others The Vortex at Norway is the most noted and greatest of all for it is related to be 13 miles in circuit in the middle of it is a Rock called Mouske This Vorago in six hours sucketh in all that approacheth near it as Water Whales laden Ships and in so many hours vomiteth them all out again with a great violence noise and circumgyration of water The cause is unknown Between Normandy and England is a Vorago or Whirlpool unto which Ships are carried with a great swiftness and being near the Whirlpool are repelled back again Proposition XXXII The motion of the Sea which we call a Concussion or Trembling cometh from a spiration or wind which moveth the Earth or Water it self and causeth it to rise Of the concâ—ssion of the Sea and its cause On the Coast of Biscay is a place which the Inhabitants call Capbreton there sometimes the Sea swelleth without any winds so that it seemeth to overflow the shore it self and on a sudden falleth low The like intumescency is found in a Lake of Scotland called Loumond moved by a subterranean wind The Portugals in Anno 1523 in the Sea of Cambaja discovered a trembling of the water for in a great calm as Maffeus writeth all winds being still the Sea on a sudden swelled from the bottom thence the Ships began to roul and to fall foul of one another to their great astonishment Now in this great confusion and disturbance some cast the lead some pumped others more wise bethought themselves of escaping and got barrels on which they might swim but on an instant it was found to be an Earthquake which thus also disturbed the Ships on the Sea as well as the Land Proposition XXXIII Why the Pacifick Ocean is more calm and without great floods or waves and why it is easily moved or rough with a wind The cause without doubt is because its motions towards the West are not hindred by the intercourse of shoars as the Atlantick Ocean is CHAP. XV. Of Lakes Pools or standing Waters and Marishes Proposition I. Definitions Of Lakes A Lake is a quantity of Water in any cavity of a Mediterranean place of a notable amplitude and tract on all sides encompassed with the Land and at the least having a moderate profundity But more properly that is termed a Lake which receiveth in and letteth forth Rivers A Pool is a small Lake Pools which doth never receive or send forth Rivers A Marish is water in a Mediterranean place Marishes here and there having the lands extant and about it or mixed with the Earth Proposition II. Lakes are fourfold Lakes are Fourfold 1. Some neither send forth or receive Rivers and such Lakes if small are termed Pools but if large they are called Lakes 2. Some send forth Rivers but receive none 3. Others receive Rivers and send forth none And 4. some both receive and send forth Rivers and some of those send forth greater than they receive some equal and some lesser Also some send forth a River almost in the same line with that which they received others in another line or to another quarter also some receive more than they send forth some more few and some equal Proposition III. To declare the generation and conservation of those Lakes which neither send forth nor receive Rivers Those Lakes are either great moderate or small Some of the moderate and small perpetually remain so in the Summer and when it hath not rained for a long space are dried up and both these are termed Pools Now it is easy to declare the generation of those that are dried up viz. the plenty of
forth none it is seventy miles long and five broad 3. A small one in Asia minor 4. A small one in Macedonia called Janna which receiveth little Rivers 5. The Lake of Geneva 6. A Lake in Persia 7. The Lake Soran in Moscovia which receiveth two small Rivulets 8. The River Ghir in Africa rising in Mount Atlas endeth in a Lake as Leo Africanus writeth and so some Maps do represent it but others bring the River into Nubia Proposition VI. To explain the generation of those Lakes which both receive and send forth Rivers Of Lakes which both receive and send forth Rivers There is a threefold difference of them as we have said in the second Proposition for either they receive a greater quantity of water than they send forth or an equal quantity or a lesser If that they send forth a greater quantity it is manifest that that Lake hath occult springs If less it is a sign that there are secret Aqueducts in the bottom or a spungious Earth but if it be equal we gather that there are neither occult Aqueduct nor hidden springs in the bottom The cause of the generation therefore is partly the same which we shewed in the fourth Proposition viz. the cavity and depression of the place and the quantity of water unto which are adjoyned occult springs and much rain and dissolved Snow and Ice help on the same Those that are generated from the influx of one River they are placed in the middle tract of the Rivers and render the Rivers directly and of these there are a great number So the River Niger maketh four Lakes in its passage The Nile maketh many Lakes in its passage which the Maps do not shew The River Duina pasteth through six or seven at least and you shall see other Rivers in Moscovia and Finland in the great Maps to make sixteen Lakes before that they come to their mouth But it is best to consider those which produce other Rivers than they have received The most famous for magnitude are these The Lake Zaire 1. Zaire a Lake of the procurrent of Africa lying between the thirteenth and sixth degrees of South latitude and therefore in Longitude hath 105 miles in the midst of it lieth an Island besides other small ones of that magnitude that they can bring into the field at least twenty or thirty thousand fighting men This Isle doth in a manner twice cut the Lake so that one part is accounted for a peculiar Lake it is called Zembre from this Lake flow three mighty Rivers Nile Cuama and Zaire but certain small Rivulets do flow into the same which do not only seem sufficient to supply the greatest of the same so that it is probable that it hath certain springs at the bottom although the inundation to be ascribed to be the showers that fall in the pluvial months The Lake Zaflan 2. Zaflan a Lake not far from Zaire between the tenth and sixth degrees of South latitude and therefore about sixty miles in Longitude It sendeth forth a branch into the Nile and receiveth small Rivers The Lake Sachaf 3. The Lake Sachaf not far from Zaire towards the Promontory of Good hope sendeth forth a Rivulet which being augmented with other waters at length maketh the River of the holy Ghost It receiveth small Rivers The Lake Aquilunda 4. The Lake Aquilunda receiveth a branch from the Lake Zaire and sendeth forth many Rivers into Congo The Lake Onega 5. Onega a Lake in Finland between the 60 and 63 degrees of Latitude hath 44 miles in length and 30 in breadth where it is at the broadest It receiveth many small Rivers which proceed from other Lakes and sendeth forth the moderate River Sueri into the Lake Lodoga The Lake Lodoga 6. The Lake Lodoga 30 miles long and 15 broad it receiveth the River Sueri from Onega and many lesser from other places a moderate one from Ilmen a noted Lake in Moscovia It sendeth forth a River into the Baltick Sea The Lake Osera 7. The Lake Osera receiveth the River Kousam and others and sendeth forth Sosnam which runeth into the Volga The Lake Enaraok 8. Enaraok a Lake or Marish in Lapland in length 40 miles in breadth 15 It receiveth the River Avilan and other lesser Rivers and sendeth forth the River Paes into the Lappian Sea The Lake ula 9. Vla a Lake in Moscovia 30 miles long and 15 broad it hath in the midst of it an Island as in the Lake Zaire It receiveth a River that passeth through 10 Lakes and sendeth forth a famous River There are many more in Moscovia Finland and Norway Lakes in China 10. In China are four famous Lakes which receive Rivers and again distribute them into divers parts Lakes in Brasil 11. In Brasil in the same manner as in China are the Lakes Euparia and Puerto de los Reyes in which the Rivers Argenta and Omoranna do meet and pass through Proposition VII Many Lakes contain fresh Water very few salt or Marine Divers Lakes contain fresh-water very few salt Those that have their being from Rains or Rivers as also those that have their own proper springs more remote from the Sea but those that are caused by an inundation of the Sea through a certain passage are salt as also some which have springs of Salt-water in the bottom So the Lake Harlem and others in Holland are salt There is a salt Lake found in the Isle of Madagascar in Peru in Cuba which hath two Leagues in circuitâ— â—scituate not far from the Sea and although it receive certain Rivers of fresh-water and breedeth Fish and Tortoises yet it is salt So the Lake Asphaltites although it receive the fresh-water of Jordan yet it is not sweet but sendeth forth so stinking and violent a vapour that the circumjacent land for the space of half a mile is barren Proposition VIII Whether the Caspian Sea be a Lake Streight or Gulph of the Ocean The Caspian Sea whether a Lake Streight or Gulph Some will have it to be properly termed a Sea but no Sea can properly be termed a Sea except it be a part of the Ocean that is except it doth adhere to the Ocean by some manifest tract but they will have it joyned to the Ocean by some subterraneous passage The Ancients indeed would have it to be joyned with the Indian Ocean others with the Northern but experience sufficiently sheweth both to be deceived Concerning a subterraneous passage the matter is uncertain yet it seemeth to be probable from thence that it receiveth so many Rivers and those noted for great quantities which quantity of water the Channel could not possible contain except that it exonerated the same by subterraneous Caverns and passages into the Ocean But others suppose that quantity of water otherwise to be consumed viz. that it penetrateth not into the Ocean but into the vicine Mountains of which there is a great
number and almost all send forth springs Scaliger and others assert that this Caspian Sea is carried by a subterraneous passage into the Euxine Sea but he alledgeth no probation of it yet that may be a sign by reason that the Euxine Sea perpetually sendeth forth waters in great abundance through the Bosphorus which abundance of waters some think that it doth not receive from the Rivers but by a subterranean passage from the Caspian Sea But it seemeth not so to me to have any conjunction with the Sea and therefore I suppose it to be a Lake and so rather to be called than a Sea Now whence it was first generated is a greater difficulty Some say that great Mountains of Salts are found in its bottom and that thence it hath its saltness but the water they suppose to proceed from the multitude of Rivers that exonerate themselves into this Lake or Sea Yet although these waters make to the conservation of it yet I think it more probable that this Sea for some Ages since was conjoyned to the Ocean neither do I question but that the Euxine Sea will at length become a Lake for the same reason the Bosphorus being obstructed Proposition IX To make a Lake in a place if that it be possible Of making Lakes It may be done if that there be a River in the land adjoyning or that a Spring be found in the place and that the place be somewhat more depressed and low than in the adjacent places although small Lakes may be also made on the tops of Mountains therefore the place must be hallowed and the earth dug away unto so great a depth and amplitude as we require and its sides must be fenced with banks upheld by wood if need so require then an Inlett being made from the Channel of the river the water must be let in or if that a Fountain in that place affordeth a sufficient quantity of water there is no need of that inlett or aqueduct Proposition X. To take away or dry up a Lake Of drying up of Lakes That may be performed two ways 1. If the bottom of that Lake be higher or of almost an equal depression with the vicine place an Aqueduct being made the water will flow from the place or Lake and at length will render the bottom dry the heat of the Sun assisting and Earth being cast in 2. If that the bottom of the Lake be lower than the vicine place it must first be fenced with a trench in its whole circuit leaving only some Channels or open passages then making use of Water-mills the water must be expelled and drawn out and then the bottom must be covered with earth and dung and such seeds cast in which suddenly will take root as Mustard-seed Coleworts and the like By this mode the Dutch very well know how to drain Lakes and to make fruitful lands of them Proposition XI Marishes are of two sorts some are ouzey and consisting of a mixt substance as it were viz. of Water and Earth so that it will not suffer the footsteps of a man others have small standing Pools with small portions of dry land here and there Marishes are of two sorts Of the first sort are those that receive or send forth no Rivers such Marishes are in Holland Brabant where is the Marish de Peel and many in Westphalia to which some of the second sort are admixed But many of the second kind are found at the originals or springs of Rivers whence some are wont to call these Springs or Fountains Marishes as the Marishes of Tanais in Moscovia of the Nile c. Such Marishes also seem to be in Savolax a Province in Finland in a great tract of land also the Marishes of Enarack the Chelonides Marishes of Africa the Marishes of Chaldea through which the Euphrates doth pass These Marishes are frequently found in Woods and Desarts that are Ericose because that the rain which irrigateth those lanes and collecteth in its cavities is not attracted by the Sun by reason that the Leaves of Trees do repel its Rays Such kind of Marishes are found here and there in Germany and Moscovia Moreover these Marishes of the second sort are four-fold viz. some both receive and send forth Rivers some only receive some only send forth and some neither receive nor send forth The first sort are generated and conserved partly by occult springs and water effused before that it be brought to a certain Channel and also from a greater quantity of water than can possibly be brought through a Channel many of which sort are in Moscovia and Finland Marishes of the last kind probably are conserved and spring from rain and small springs Aristotle calleth the Palus Maeotis a Lake and that more rightly Proposition XII Marishes have a sulphurous bituminous and fat Earth This is discovered both from the black colour and from the Reeds which are generated from it Of the earth of Marishes and easily take fire as is found in Holland and other places The cause is by reason that such substances are contained in the raise of the earth where these Marishes do exist Yet all Marishes are not such but where the Earth is stony and hard there are no Marishes for where there is a soft earth there for a certain is a fat and sulphurous substance Proposition XIII To drain Marishes and Fens Of draining of Fens Although some Fens have an high profundity yet no more is required to drain them to such a depth which we may do if that we cause the water to flow away by some Channel or Aqueduct 2. If that after some weeks they have been dried by the Sun we cast in a great quantity of dry earth 3. If that we make a fire upon them and 4. If that we hinder water from flowing into them as rain and the like CHAP. XVI Of Rivers in General Proposition I. We comprehend in this Proposition the definitions necessary for this doctrine Of Rivers and their definition 1. A River is water flowing from a certain place of the Earth to another place in a long tract and within its Channel A Channel is that cavity in the Earth in which the water is contained which is more depressed and lower than the shore of that water 2. A Rivulet is a River that hath not the profundity and breadth as to admit of small laden Vessels 3. That is termed Amnis which admitteth of those Vessels but if they will bear moderate Vessels great ones laden then it is called by the general term of Fluvius and Flumen 4. That water is termed a Torrent which floweth from the Mountainous places with a violence 5. Where two Rivers meet that place is called a Confluence 6. A River or Rivulet which floweth from another is termed a Branch or Arm yet for the most part it is taken for such an arm which is lesser than the other part of the River Yet those are also frequently
dissolved Snow And this they take for a sign of it that Rain and dissolved Snow do much augment the Rivers that oftentimes they extend beyond their Channel and overflow Regions also that Rivers do much decrease and some lesser sort of them are altogether dried up when no Rain for a long while in the Summer season hath fallen because that their Channel is not very profound and therefore have collected little water but those that have a deep Channel are not dried up in the Summer by reason that they have gathered so much water from the Rains that fell and dissolved Snow so that all cannot be turned into vapours except by a daily and continual heat 2. Because that there are very few Rivers in those places where there is little rain as in the more inward part of Africa there are few Springs But these allegations resolve not the question because we are not to demand or seek the Original of Rivers but only the Original of the Water of Fountains Therefore those that speak thus have not well considered the sence of the question as we have taken notice before although also the experience that they alledge is not general because that there are Rivers found in places where there is little rain and no snow although it be true in the Region of Peru and Aegypt which they assert Moreover rain moistneth not the Earth above ten foot deep but Fountains spring from a far greater profundity The Opinion of Seneca 2. Others suppose that we should not demand whence the water of Fountains doth arise by reason that water is an Element as much as Earth Air and Fire concerning the Original of which we do not dispute thus Seneca discourseth But other Authours cut in twain this Gordian knot with the Sword of Alexander For it is not enquired after how that water hath a Being but how it cometh to the places of Fountains and not to other places Moreover the Earth doth not so flow forward as Rivers do But for the Air it is false that we should not seek concerning it as they determine 3. Aristotelians follow the opinion of their Master See Aristotle līo 1. Chap. 11. who in the whole Eleventh Chapter of his first Book of Meteors endeavoureth to prove that the water of Fountains is generated from Air contained in the bowels of the Earth He alledgeth these reasons 1. Waters are generated from Air above the Earth viz. Rain therefore seeing that Air is in the bowels of the Earth and that there is the same cause of condensation viz. Cold therefore he saith it is absurd for any one to think that water is not produced from Air there 2. Experience testifieth that more great drops that fall are made of small ones and therefore the Original of Rivers must be as it were certain Brooks of water that meet in one part of the Earth for therefore those that make Aqueducts are wont to bring the water down by trenches and small Channels 3. Because that many Springs and those of the greatest Rivers are found in mountanous places very few in Plains or Valleys which is an evidence that the water of Fountains proceedeth from a condensed Air or Vapour which Air and Vapour tend towards higher places and mountainous places are as it were spunges incumbing over lower places Those are the reasons of Aristotle The Opinion of Cardanus 4. Cardanus with others suppose that the water of Fountains proceeds from Rivulets which are generated of watery vapours condensed both within and without the Earth but that these Fountains alone scarce make up Rivers unless assisted by rain or dissolved Snow His Reasons are these 1. If betimes in the morning one view the Mountains they will appear moist 2. Rivers overflow in the morning and so much the more by how much the part of it is more near the Fountain But the perpetual and constant impetus of the water bubling and leaping from the Springs doth not seem to have its Original from so weak and inconstant a cause Neither doth this opinion of Cardanus much differ from that of Aristotle but that Aristotle placeth Air with the generation Cardanus vapours with the generation to be the cause of Springs and indeed small is the difference between Air and vapours 5. Some of the Antients supposed Rains to be coacervated within the Earth in Cavities and thence to break forth as from a mighty belly and that all Rivers sprang from one of them or from some other of them neither that there was any other water generated but what were collected in the winter months into those receptacles they supposed to evade into the multitude of these Rivers and therefore that they flowed more in the winter than in the Summer and that some were continual and some not They added the same cause that we have laid down in the first opinion But Aristotle receiveth this opinion because that more water in one year floweth out from the mouth of the River than the bulks of that whole part of Earth or Land 6. Of Modern Philosophers many as also of the Ancients determined that the Earth again received whatsoever waters flowed out from the mouth of the Rivers into the Sea For the water of the Sea by an hidden passage went under the Earth and is beaten in its passage through divers windings of the Earth and strained through Sand and Chalk which removeth its saltness and so passeth into pure water I also defend this opinion and suppose it true yet so as not to exclude the cause laid down in the first and third place the reasons are these 1. Because more than one thousand Rivers exonerate themselves into the Sea and the greater of them in such an abundancy that that water which they send forth into the Sea throughout the whole year exceedeth the whole Earth as the River Volga into the Caspian Sea and also other Rivers Therefore it cannot otherwise be but that water must be sent forth into many places of the Earth even to the Fountains of Rivers Now if that this were not so we could not possibly imagine how that the Sea should not be augmented unto an immensity or why Fountains should not cease to send forth water Neither may it be objected that so many vapours are elevated from the Sea that are equivalent to the water that the Sea hath received from the Rivers For first only Rain maketh those vapours then again it is most false that so great a quantity of vapours should be elevated from the Sea as are generated from the water which floweth from the Rivers into the Sea Fountains the nearer the Sea are salter than those farther distant 2. This opinion is proved from that to wit that the Fountains near the Sea are salt and brackish and by how much they are nigher to the Sea by so much they are the more salt as on the Coast of Africa especially on the Coasts of Choromaudel in India where no Vines
do grow and where that all Wells are salt In the City of Suez at the Termination of the Red Sea all Wells are salt or brackish and the water two miles distant is somewhat salt So in many Islands in the Sea no Wells of fresh water are found though not so salt as the Sea water it self as in the Isle of St. Vincent and others In Peru in the low Region the Lakes are salt by reason of the vicinity of the Sea Yea in the Oriental Maritimate places the Nuts called Coco Nuts are found somewhat salt Also in the Mediterranean places themselves Fountains of salt water are found as in Lorrain Lunenburgh and the like 3. Because that it is manifest that the Sea emitteth its water through subterraneous passages from the salt Fountains of Lunenburgh where beneath the Earth those Aqueducts full of salt or Sea-water are found 4. Because that digging to a great depth as also in Mines much water is found of which neither the Rain nor the Air can be made the efficient cause How water cometh from the Sea to the places of Fountains so as to become sweet we have now shewed viz. the bottom of the Sea is not every where Rocky or Stony but in many places Sandy Muddy Gravelly Spungy drinking the water of the Sea and by a continuation of the Earth brings it by degrees to a long distance from the Sea where at length the Guttulae unite especially in a narrow space such as are Mountains and make a Fountain in the given place or Cavity but if so be that Cavity be hidden from the Earth then the water so collected either followeth another way wheresoever it be made and so a Fountain seemeth to break forth in another place which yet is not in than place but is a River derived from the former place by a subterraneous passage Or if that the water of that Cavity findeth no way about it self neither by violence can break through the Earth that covereth it then that water is not augmented but what water flowed unto it to have been its encrease that is averted to another place For that is the property of all humid bodies that all their parts and particles are moved towards that place where the deflux is made So if you fill a Vessel with water that the swelling or tumour may be above the brim of the Vessel then all the parts of the extant water have an equal inclination and power of deflux in the vicine part of the brim But yet by reason of the mutual coherence of the particles whose cause is declared in Natural Philosophy if that the deflux be made in one part of the brim all the other parts leave the vicine brim and draw to that part of the brim or they follow where the deflux is made So if you immerge a long crust of Bread into water you shall see the water born upwards and and the part of the Bread that is not immerged to be humid The Sea goeth under the Earth through Caverns Moreover the Sea goeth under the Earth through Caverns from which after the same mode the water may glide or creep forth unless you had rather ascribe it to evaporations which are carried upwards and uniting the drops in a narrow place But because there are many things which may seem to render this opinion less probable these ought also to be considered that it may be evident that they weaken not this assertion laid down Things to be noted 1. The places of Fountains are more elevated than the Superficies of the Sea by reason that most of them are in Mountanous places therefore water cannot flow from the Sea to those places because the nature of water is to move to places more depressed or less elevated as it is manifest from Rivers and the Artifices of Drainers 2. Although the bottom of the Sea be gravelly muddy and sandy so that the water may penetrate it self through its particles yet the reason doth not appear evident enough but that it may more moisten the adjoyning Earth and that which is not so high than to glide upwards to the places of Fountains seeing especially that the Earth is Rocky and Stony as in the Mountains of the Island of St. Helena 3. There is no reason why the water so gliding from the Sea should not break forth in a middle way between the Sea and the Fountain 4. In the most profound Mines none or very little water is found as Thurnheuserus witnesseth 5. This water of the Fountains should be salt because that it doth proceed from the Sea These are the chief Arguments which may seem to weaken the opinion proposed For I pass by those slight ones alledged by others Other Arguments Answered viz. that they suppose that the Sea is not sufficient to supply so many Rivers then again that Rivers then should never be diminished if that were the true cause of Rivers that we have laid down But unto these two the answer is easy because that the Sea again receiveth the water again from the Rivers that it sent forth into the Fountains Then as for the other we have shewed before that the question is not neither do we determine that all the water of the Rivers is from the Sea but only concerning the water of Springs which is not the alone cause of Rivers as we have said already and we also assert that the water of Fountains is augmented from rains and Dew because that these moistening the Earth glide or are drawn towards the places of Fountains Four Other Arguments of great concernment where the efflux of the water is made which we have explained by other Examples We come now to those four Arguments alledged which may seem to carry some weight with them The first is esteemed very valid as being taken from multiplicit experience therefore many solutions are brought and alledged by Learned men First they the most easily discharge themselves who defend the Ocean to be more high than the Earth for so they deny the assertion and they say that this Altitude of the Ocean is the cause of Springs because that Springs are less high than the water in the middle of the Ocean See Olearius his Voyage into Persia Moreover Olearius in the Description of his Voyage into Persia relateth that he ascended the Mountain that adjoyneth to the Caspian Sea and with an Astrolabe or rather a Gaeodetical Instrument to observe the Elevation of this Mountain above the superficies of that Sea but found none but that the extream superficies of that Sea was seen in the Horizontal Line yea somewhat elevated above it so that the Tumour of this Sea was found a little more high than the vertex of the Mountain on which he made his observation But in truth this solution cannot be admitted of See Chap. 13. because we have shewed in the Thirteenth Chapter that the water of the Ocean is not higher than the Mountains
of which it is probable that the mutation of the height of the Sea availeth much sometimes in this and sometimes in that part by reason of the floods waves or tempest For the water being made higher more presseth the water and promoteth its ingress through the Earth to the Springs And seeing that every day the Altitude of the Sea is augmented and diminished in the parts of the Ocean not only by storms but also by the flux and reflux therefore such a pressure happeneth every day but I question whether this cause can effect much The third Argument answered Unto the third Argument I say that the reason is the disposition of the places and of the Earth it self and as I said that the humour is moved and glideth towards that part where the flux is made neither do I think it needeth any farther explication The fourth Argument Answered The fourth Argument taken from the saltness hath a more difficult solution because that it seemeth not possible that the saltness should be taken away only by transcolation for the saltness of the water consisteth in a double Salt which the Aristotelians never observed the one of which the Chymists aptly call fixed the other volatile Salt And the fixed Salt may indeed be separated from the marine water as well by continual transcolation as by coction and distillation of the water but the volatile Salt because it is spirituous is immediately advanced with the water neither can it be separated by frequent and often repeated distillation Therefore it is hard to give a mode by which this volatile salt spirit in its passage between the Sea and the Fountain may be separated from the Sea water Yet in the mean while these will suffice for the solution 1. Although we have not discovered the mode and artifice by which this volatile salsitude may be separated from the Sea water yet we must not deny but that it may be separated for by nature we find it separated viz. for fresh showers fall into the Ocean which yet were generated of the vapours taken up from the Sea 2. Those particles of Salt water penetrating the Earth before they flow to their Fountain are mixed here and there with other waters proceeding there from rain or vapours and so that small saltitude that they yet had is rendred altogether insensible 3. It is not true that the salsitude is altogether insensible in all Springs because that some Fountains are salt as we said before other-some brackish a little as those two miles from the City Suez and in places less remote from the Sea Therefore there is need of a long transcolation and gentle evaporation to separate the water from the volatile Salt and by this artifice we make Sea water less salt and such also is the generation of rain water which therefore is not salt or at least less salt For it is certain that sometimes saltish kinds of rain do fall into the Sea Therefore the waters of Fountains proceed partly from the Sea or subterranean waters partly from Rivers and Dew that moisten the Earth But the water of Rivers partly proceedeth from Springs and partly from Rain and Snow Proposition VI. Certain Rivers hide themselves in the midst of their passage under the Earth and in another place rise up again as if they were new Rivers Of Rivers which in the midst of their passage hide themselves under the Earth and rise again The most celebrated of them are 1. The River Niger which meeting the Mountains of Nubia is observed under them and cometh sorth again from the other Occidental quarter 2. Tigris having passed the Lake Arethusa meeting the Mountain Taurus is hidden in a Cave and floweth out on the other side Then when it hath passed the Lake Thospites it is again obscured in subterranean Caverns and then after it hath thus run the space of about six German miles it breaketh forth again 3. About Arcadia in Peloponnesus many such Riverets are to be found as Aristotle writeth in his first Book of Meteors Chapter Eleventh 4. Alpheus a River of Achaia is absorbed by the Earth The Grecians write that it keepeth its course under the Sea and beneath the Earth even unto Sicilia where they will have it to emerge on the Coast of Syracuse and to be that River that is called Arethusa in Sicilia Now this they especially collected from this viz. that Arethusa in Sicilia every fifth Summer cast up the dung of those Beasts at that time when the Olympian Games were celebrated and the dung and garbage of the slain Victims were cast into Alpheus Therefore being carried with a direct Current they were cast up in Sicilia 5. The River Guadiana between Portugal and Biscay in times past called Anas wholly obscureth it self at Medelina and about 8 German miles further discovereth it self again 6. Dan which flowing with the River Jor maketh Jordan breaketh forth some miles from its Fountain Phiala Straw or rushes being cast into the same are found and discovered in the Fountain or proruption of the River Dan. The Reasons why these Rivers hide themselves under the Earth and again emerge are 1. The obstacle of a more elevated place than the Channel of the River 2. Either perchance some cavity existing in the Earth or some inconstant matter which easily giveth place to the gliding River There are also other Rivers which hide themselves under the Earth but do not again emerge as we shall shew in the following Propositions Proposition VII Most of the great and indifferent Rivers as also a great part of the lesser do exonerate themselves into the Sea or a Lake and the place where this exoneration is made is termed the Mouth of the River Some Rivers have one some three and some more such Mouths Some of the Rivers of indifferent magnitude as also the lesser sort discharge themselves into greater Rivers the others either stagnate or are sucked up by the Earth Most Rivers both great and small lose themselves in the Sea or in Lakes Concerning the greater Rivers the thing is evident by the Example of the Rhine the Danube the Wolga and such like For the Danube is exonerated into the Euxine Sea by seven Mouths the Wolga hath at least seventy Outlets or Mouths the Nile hath seven and where it overfloweth more The cause why greater Rivers do exonerate themselves into the Sea is their abundance of water and vehement course Now why they have more outlets than one there is a twofold reason for the same 1. The abundance of water 2. The generation of Sands and ridges in the mouths which in progress of time was so augmented that they become either part of the Land or Island and so cause that the River gliding is divided into two branches And when many such ridges are generated the River is divided into many branches or one mouth into many but then for the most part the mouths are carried forwards and the Sea recedeth from
the Land Courses of water often made by the Industry of Men. The Ancients testifie that the Nile in times past let it self into the Sea by one mouth which was termed Canobus Unto these two former causes a third may be added viz. Human Industry for men oftentimes from some River derive courses of water and prepare a passage or Channel for them into the Sea partly to water their Fields and partly for the convenience of Navigation which Aqueduct in progress of time by the violence of the water becomes greater Therefore the Ancients write and that not without probability that all the mouths of the Nile except Canobus were made by men But of this we shall treat more fully in the following Proposition where also shall be declared how it cometh to pass that one River floweth into the Channel of another Wolchda in Moscovia not Wolga ariseth from a Lake and exonerateth it self into another Lake Rivers and Riverets which neither exonerate themselves into the Sea or into other Rivers are either Arms or Branches of other Rivers or else peculiar Rivers Those which are branches of other Rivers very probably do stagnate and go not under the Earth Now the cause why they tend not towards the Sea is twofold 1. Because the Channel is not so deep and therefore they have not much water 2. The more hard Earth hindereth the progress 3. Many of them are made to water the Fields and for the more easie use of water 4. The Mouth is obstructed the Sea departing and the Land augmenting or promoting towards the Sea or the banks or ridges generated in the Channel are so augmented that they admit of no water but repel it so that branch of the Rhine which formerly discharged it self into the Belgick Ocean near the Village of the Catti now stagnates in the mid-way between Leyden and that Village But those peculiar Rivers which neither exonerate themselves into the Sea nor into other Rivers but rising in the Earth seem to be absorbed by the Earth these Rivers are very small also few as also those that flow from the Mountainous places of Peru India and Africa are swallowed up either within the Sandy soil or are absconded in the Earth So at Meten a Village in Arabia near the Gulph is found a River with a glorious Channel Under these Reeds in the Summer season the streams hide themselves with such a silent course that there appeareth nothing of humidity on the top but if that no way be admitted to these Riverets under the Earth they make Marishes and small Lakes Notwithstanding some run with so slow a stream that almost so much is separated by exhalations as they receive by the Stream and so are stayed on the Earth and neither make Lakes nor are absorbed as the Riverets Conitra Salle Marefsa Jeleesa and others in Moscovia Proposition VIII Whether the passage or Channel through which the Rivers run be made by the Industry of men or by Nature Of the Channels of Rivers It is probable that the Channels of those Rivers which were not generated with the Earth were made by hands on those very accounts 1. Because that Experience testifieth that when new Fountains do flow the water so flowing out maketh not a certain Channel to it self but doth dilate it self through the adjacent Land And therefore if that it must flow there is need of the help of man to hollow a Channel 2. It is manifest that men have made many Channels So the Chineses made a Channel by which water runeth from the yellow River into another River 3. Because Lakes and Marishes do confirm the same such as are found about the Fountains of many Rivers that are on a plain such as are those Lakes or Marishes from which the Nile Tanais Wolga and others do flow Which Lakes we doubt not but to be generated and conserved from the effusion of water made round about by the Fountain and therefore men made a certain Channel to defend their Fields from such a water into which Channel the water might fall and drain the Lands The same must be understood of Rivers whose Springs are on the Mountains Of affinity to this Proposition is this other viz. Whether that Rivers which exonerate themselves into others or meet together made that passage by their motion or whether they were brought into them by men which made a Channel The latter seemeth more probable for the reasons before alledged The same must be observed concerning the branches of Rivers and Circumductions by which Islands are made in the Tanais Wolga c. Of Isles made in Rivers So one Arm of the Euphrates formerly passing through the Ghaldean Marishes was let out into the Sea afterwards it left its course many Aqueducts and Channels being made by the Natives to water their grounds neither doth it arrive to the Sea its mouth being obstructed and its water is partly taken up in the Aqueducts that are made and partly averted into the other Arm which exonerateth it self into the Tigris And so it seemeth to be the case of other Rivers which we now see do not go forwards into the Sea but to stagnate It is probable that in times past they did exonerate themselves into the Sea Proposition IX Why no salt Rivers are found seeing that Salt-springs are found in many places The reason why no Salt Rivers are found The reason is because that men have no need of Salt-water and therefore make no Channel by which the water of the salt Fountain may flow by reason that they can have Salt at an easier rate But if that a fit Channel were prepared from those salt Springs we should have salt Rivers such as are in Lunenburgh and other places under the Earth Neither do we question but that many Rivers of Salt-water do flow from their Fountains under the Earth Proposition X. The Channels of Rivers by how much they are the more near their Fountains by so much they are the more high and by how much they are the more near the Mouths of Rivers and the Sea by so much for the most part they are the more depressed Furthermore of Channels of Rivers But in some Channels some parts more removed from the Spring are higher than that part more near to the Fountain either by reason of the Hills and Valleys as I may so say in their Channels or by reason of their Whirlpools yet no part of the Channel is higher than the Fountain The flowing of water The cause or reason of the Proposition is manifest because that water floweth not but from a place more high to a place more low and so every part of the Channel especially the mouth of the River is lower than the Spring for otherwise it would flow back again to the Fountain Now that the elevation of the Channel doth decrease even to the mouth of the River that at least is true concerning many parts of the Channel for because here
the great Mogul in whatsoever place he is causeth this water to be brought him of which he only drinketh Some will have the water of the Nile to be the most fruitful and the most wholsome Most heavy waters are impregnated with Iron or Mercury In great Rivers we must have respect to the Riverets of which they are compounded For the Rhine receiveth many Mineral Riverets so also doth the Danube of Gold Iron and Vitriol and hence have they their quality although many Fountains have little of them Proposition XX. Some Rivers every year at a set time are so augmented that they overflow their Channel and inundate the adjacent Lands Of the increase and overflowing of Rivers The most famous of those is the Nile that so encreaseth that it overspreadeth all Egypt except the Hills In Congo Angola Monomotapa Soffala Mosambique from those it is known that the Fountains of the Nile are the great Lake Zaire River Nile or in the Lake Zaire which is situate in the procurrent of Africa in a middle place between the Eastern and Western shoar under the tenth degree from the Equator towards the South as we have said in the former Chapter Near unto this Lake are many ridges of Mountains which are called the Mountains of the Moon so that the Lake lieth as in a Valley between Mountains Now because that these places lye from the Equator towards the South therefore the reason of the Solary motion requireth that they should have Winter when that we have Summer but by reason of their small distance from the Equator they feel no cold but instead of Snow they have almost continual Rains two hour before and after Noon in the Kingdom of Congo the Clouds hardly permitting the sight of the Sun with the same Clouds the tops of the Mountains appear as covered and in these Mountainous places rains and showers are almost continually which run down like Torrents and all flow together into the Lake Zaire and from thence into the Channel of the Nile Zaire Cuama and others that arise from the same Lake but yet do not abound with so great a quantity yet the Zaire doth overflow every year as the Nile because the Channel of them is more deep and after a short Tract they exonerate themselves into the Sea yet all of them encrease at the same time and disgorge themselves of a great quantity of water into the Sea River Niger The second River among those that overflow the adjacent Lands at a certain time is the Niger of no less Tract than the Nile though not so famous It overfloweth at the same time that the Nile doth The third River of the overflowing Rivers is the Zaire a River in Congo of which we have spoken River Zaire Add to this the lesser Rivers of Congo The fourth is Rio de la Plate a River in Brasil which overfloweth the adjacent Fields at the same time with the Nile Rio de la Plate as Maffaeus writeth Rivers Ganges and Indus The fifth of the overflowing Rivers is the Ganges The sixth is the River Indus these two Rivers in the Pluvial months of those Regions pour themselves forth upon the Lands without their Channels where then the Natives do gather the water into standing Pools that in the other months of the year when there is almost no Rain they may thence fetch water and this inundation causeth great fertility in the Fields The seventh comprehendeth many viz. four or five which flow from the Lake Chiamy in a moderate Channel and exonerate themselves into the Gulph of Bengala passing through the Kingdoms of Peru Sian and others That which passeth through the Country of Sian is called Menan And at the time of the inundation the Fields and Streets of the Cities are covered with water so that they are forced to make use of Boats to sail from one house to another And this inundation also causeth exceeding fertility River Macou The eighth is Macou a River in Camboja which overflows in the Summer months River Parana The ninth is the River Parana which overfloweth after the same manner as the Nile doth The tenth in Choromandel a part of India the Rivers overflow by reason of the plenty of waters that flow from the top of the Mountain Gatis in the Pluvial months River Euphrates The Eleventh is the Euphrates which at set-times of the year overfloweth Mesopotamia The Twelfth of these overflowing Rivers is Sus a River in Numidia River Sus. which overfloweth in the Winter I have not read of any other Rivers that I can remember that do overflow in an Anniversary time of the year although some may do it in most years to wit the River Obius and Flavius a River of China There are many Rivers that overflow without any order or in a set-time yea there is scarcely any River of noted magnitude which overfloweth not its Banks sometimes So it is evident concerning the Albis the Rhine and the like And but that the capacity of the Channel and the height of the Banks obstructed all great Rivers in an Anniversary time would inundate because that most of them are much augmented in the Spring season And it may so happen that a River that did use to overflow may begin to do it in an Anniversary time viz. if that any part of it by reason of ridges or sands or any other way become higher and the Coasts or shoars become more high but then men are accustomed to raise Banks The only cause of these Inundations is the abundancy of Water which in some Examples alledged may proceed peradventure from dissolved Snow but in most from frequent Rains Yet that is a wonder that the Indus and Ganges should overflow in other Months than the adjacent Rivers from the Lake Chiama but the cause of this diversity which is observed here in this Season must partly be taken from the Anniversary rains in the adjacent places partly from the Mountains and Rains about the places of the Fountains But we to avoid prolixity shall supersede to discuss every Example The River Bibara in France near to Paris sometimes without any Rains or at least with those that are usual so swelleth that it causeth desolation unto the Suburbs of St. Marcellus Now the reason why almost all these Inundations make the Lands fruitful is because that water that inundateth is either Rain or Snow-water which waters both by reason of their Spirituous lévity and also because of their Sulphureous substance which they have admixt in the Air. Above all other Minerals are very prevalent to fructifie and are also wholsom Now that there is such a Spirit and Sulphur in Rain-water is proved 1. From the Worms that are generated in it 2. From its easie putrefaction 3. From the very Chymical distillation Yet some Rivers by their Inundation do not make the Earth fertile but rather cause sterility as Ligeris in France when that Sequana maketh them
fruitful by its fat water Proposition XXI To explain how Springs or Fountains break forth Of the breaking forth of Springs and Fountains In the fourth Proposition we have shewed whence the water ariseth that floweth from Fountains Now here we demand by what force that water collected in the Earth is thrust forth seeing that it seemeth not possible to be done without a violent removing of the Earth But the causes are various which make way for a Spring in any place 1. If that in any place there be a certain cavity the water distilleth into that without the help of any other cause when that by creeping it cometh into it and then in course of time maketh greater passages for it self until that cavity being filled it floweth out and maketh a River The same also hapneth without a cavity if that the Spring be on the top of a Mountain Also for this reason frequent Springs are found in Woods and shady places For the Rain-water moistneth the Earth and because it is not extracted by the heat of the Sun and an open and free Air by degrees it allureth to it self the hidden water of a future Fountain 2. A way is prepared and the Earth removed by the Spirits which are admixed with the waters yet in the Earth also the rarefaction of water in the Earth by which it requireth the larger place For the Waters whilst that yet they are hidden within the Earth carry many Spirits Also Subterranean fires add not a little to this 3. Oftentimes Fountains are brought to light by showers for showers do render the Pores of the Earth more ample and large when that they conjoyn with the water of the hidden Fountain and so this followeth that by reason of the mutual conjunction and coherency 4. Sometimes Springs are opened by an Earthquake so an Earthquake sent forth the River Ladon 5. Sometimes they are discovered by the Industry of Men by digging the Earth 6. Many Fountains have been discovered by Animals which are wont to dig up the Earth with their Snouts so a Hog first discovered the first Salt Spring in Lunenburgh for when he had rooted up the Earth and made a gutter the water spouted out which filling the gutter the Hog according to their custome lay down in it then when he arose and that his back was dry some discovered a very white colour on him which when they had more accurately contemplated they found it to be white Salt then they went to the Spring and from thence forwards many more were sought and found out from which the City obtaineth almost â—ll its riches and splendor And in Memorial thereof the Hog was quartered and smoak-dried and is kept at this very day in the Palace of Lunenburgh to be seen Proposition XXII A place being given in the Earth to enquire whether a Spring or Well may be made in it See Vitruvius in the Eighth Book of his Architecture See Vitruvius Lib. 8. Cap. 1. Chap. 1. At this day we perform the same by digging up the Earth oftentimes to a great depth and for the most part veins or heads of Springs or Wells or the Wells and Springs themselves are found Proposition XXIII A place being given to make a Spring or Well in it if that it be possible to be made We will alledge the words of Vitruvius as being a man excellently skilled in these affairs See Vitruvius Cap. 7. seeing that we never used our selves to this kind of Exercise In his Seventh Chapter thus he speaketh Reason must not be contemned in digging of Wells but the natural reasons of things are to be considered with sharpness of wit and great prudence by reason that the Earth hath many and various things within it for it is compounded as other things of four Principles and the first is Terrene and hath from the humidity of the water Fountains also heats whence proceed Sulphur Alom Bitumen and gross Spirits of Air which being thick when by the fistulous intervenings of the Earth they come to the place where the Well is dug and find men digging by their natural vapour they stop up the Animal spirits of those that work at their Nostrils so that those that fly not quickly away are there choaked Now to avoid this we must thus act Let a Candle be lighted and let down and if that it continueth burning you may descend without danger but if that the light be extinguished by the force of the Vapors then let Aestuaries be dug on the right and left hand near the Wâ—ll so as by the Nostrils the Spirits will be dissipated When those are so explicated and that you are come to the water let the structure be so senced that the veins be not stopped But if that the places should prove hard or that the veins shall not be altogether at the bottom then assistance must be taken from the coverings of Plaster-works Now this must be observed in Plaster-work that the roughest and purest Sand be gotten that the Cement be broken with a Flint that the most vehement Chalk be mixed with the Mortar so that five parts of Sand answer to two of Chalk or Lime Let the Cement be added to the Mortar of it let the Walls in the depressed trench unto the measure of the future altitude be spaged the Bars being made of Iron The Walls being plaistered let that which is Earthy in the midst be evacuated to the lower measure or libration of the Walls and the bottom being levelled let the Pavement be plaistered with the same Mortar unto the thickness that is appointed Now these places if they shall be made double or treble that they may be transmutated by the percolations of the water will make the use of it far more wholsom for the Mud when that it hath found a place to sink in the water becometh more clear and will keep its tast without any scent if not you must of necessity add Salt and extenuate it Proposition XXIV To prove whether the Water of a Spring be wholsom Of Spring-water whether it be wholsom or not Concerning this Vitruvius thus writeth Their probations must be thus looked after If that they flow and be open before that they begin to be drawn look on them and observe of what membrature they are what Inhabitants dwell about those Fountains whether they be of strong Bodies of good colours not lame blear or sore-eyed if so the Waters are very excellent Also if that a new Spring be dug and the water be put into a Corinthian Vessel or any other kind made of Brass and if it causeth no stain it is then most excellent water Also if that that water be heated and afterwards setled and poured forth and that no Sand or Mud be found in the bottom that Water is also very good Also if that Roots put in that water be quickly boiled they shew the water to be good and wholsom Also that the water in the Fountain be clear
like and Chymical waters in wâ—â—â— Mettals are dissolved Spirituous waters Spirituous waters are 〈◊〉 that contain only a volatile Spirit such as is found in Minerals but no fixed particles and therefore none can be elicitated from them apparent to the sight These are termed Corporeal and Spirituous waters together by me which have both fixed or solid and volatile or Spirituous particles of Minerals in them We shall alledge Examples of the Species of them in the following Propositions Proposition III. To explain how Mineral Waters are generated Of the generation of Mineral waters 1. If that Waters be carried by a violent torrent or course through Subterraneous passages in which Metallick Earth and Minerals are less thick it is manifest that the water may take and carry away from these with it grains of those Mineral waters this therefore is the generation of Corporeal Mineral waters that carry grains 2. If that the Minerals be imperfect or less dense as Vitriol Sulphur and the like or also the Salts which of their own nature are easily united to the waters if that the Waters or Riverets be carried through these Earths without Channel or Aqueduct as we have explained in the generation of Fountains the water cometh to the Fountain this will have the Atoms of these Minerals admixed and it will be a Corporeal Mineral water of a subtile conjunction according to the Atoms Now whether that the water can unite the Atoms of Mettals after this manner to it self is questioned because that they are hard and solid neither are they easily united to the water I suppose it possible to be done but not by simple water but by a salt vitriolated water which is like unto the Aqua fortis of the Chymists For as these waters of Aqua fortis dissolve Metals into Atomes and intimately unite them to themselves so that they sink not to the bottom unless that they be separated by Art So also if that such waters be carried through metallary earth they are able to dissolve the metallick particles and unite them to themselves After this mode is the generation of mineral corporeal waters of the second Classis explained 3. In the bowels of the earth before that Metals are generated vapours and fumes are condensed unto the extant Angles of the Rocks unto which they adhere and first they meet together in a soft substance and at length they are condensed therefore if that the waters are carried or glide through the earth where such vapours are and are raised they are impregnated by them and so spirituous mineral waters are made But imperfect Minerals after another mode cause mineral waters of their own nature viz. because that being heated by their own or subterraneous heat they send forth spirits and vapours as Salt Sulphur Vitriol Coals and such like and such fumes and exhalations are continually made in places of such Minerals through which if that the water glide it is impregnated with the spirit There are some that suppose these spirituous waters may be generated only by being carried through the metallick earths or by a continual stay upon them or in their Mines but it is certain by experience that the waters receive no quality from the Metals and Minerals if that they should lye 100 years immersed in them therefore laying aside this opinion we affirm that those waters are generated or spirit received from first the seed of Metals as I may so say or their Primordia or secondly we may say that those waters are now impregnated by other subtile Spirits of Vitriol or Salt by the benefit of which a Spirit is extracted from the hard Metals But I attribute the less to this cause or mode of generation because here ariseth a question again concerning the generation of the spirituous water of Mineral Vitriol and Salt 4. From these together it is evident how mineral waters that are both corporeal and spirituous are generated Proposition IV. There are innumerable kinds of mineral waters according to the variety and diversity of the particles which they contain of divers Minerals In the precedent Proposition we have explained how that mineral waters may receive those particles from which their admirable qualities do arise from Minerals or Fossils Many kinds of Mineral waters Now because that there are various sorts of Minerals thence it cometh to pass that the mineral waters are various and different in their qualities yea they are almost infinite For neither only are every one of these waters impregnated by one kind of mineral but together many of many wherefore mineral waters will either be simple or mixed and the mixed will have something either from three or four or from many Fossils or Minerals Thence 1. are Metallick waters viz. of Gold Silver Copper Tin Lead Iron 2. Salt waters viz. of Common Salt Niter Alome Vitriol 3. Bituminous waters Sulphureous Antimonial of Coals and of Amber 4. The waters of the Earth and Stones viz. Lime-waters Chalk Ochre Marble Alabaster 5. Mercurial waters and the like These denominations or kinds of waters See Prosition II. are to be understood according to the triple mode by which in the second Propasition we said that Mineral waters were 1. Some Corporeal and even manifest to the sense or Corporeal by a subtile and accurate commixion 2. That others were Spirituous 3. That others were Corporeal and also Spirituous These differences must be applied to every kind of Mineral-water viz. to demonstrate by one or another Example Gold-waters are 1. Corporeal which carry grains of Gold of that magnitude that with little trouble they are discernable to the sense neither have they any accurate coherencies admixed unto them 2 Corporeal waters which possess very small particles of Gold and indeed very closely connexed to the water such waters I suppose to Be. Although the nature of Gold be such that the least grains in the water sink to the bottom yet that such may be is manifest from the Aqua Regia of the Chymists in which Gold is dissolved into Atoms But this Aqua Regia is not simple therefore neither do those waters that are found in nature to have Atoms of Gold admixed want other particles of Minerals 3. Spiritual Golden-waters which conceive a spirit and vapour in the Earth from whence Gold is wont to be generated 4. Golden Corporeal-waters and also Spiritual which possess both Atoms of Gold and a vapour generating Gold A fourfold difference of Mineral waters After the same manner the Readers must apply this fourfold difference unto every kind of Mineral waters both simple and admixed whence innumerable kinds do exist for either the bodies of the Minerals or the Spirits or the body of one with the spirit of another are conjoyned in the water so Leaden-waters are fourfold viz. 1. Manifestly Corporeal 2. Corporeal of a subtile mixture 3. Infected with a Spirit of Lead and 4. Impregnated both with the Spirit and Atoms of Lead So those four divers
commonly call them Spaws 1. They arise from the admixture of a Spirit of Vitriol Salt and Alom which Minerals being partly simple and partly more or less admixed with other Minerals are found in the cavities of the Earth especially in Iron We prove this to be the true cause of Acidula's and Spaws 1. By reason that almost every where where such Acid waters break out Mines of Vitriol Salt and Alom are found 2. Because the Spirits of Vitriol and Salt are Acid as also some Spirits of Sulphur as is evident from Chymistry 3. Because that from these kind of Acid waters no Acid body but Spirits is separated which are altogether like unto the Spirits of Vitriol and Salt 2. Great is the quantity of Acid waters or Spaws in divers Regions where Mines especially abound The cause is because that an Acid Sowr Spirit is almost in all Bodies by reason that we have shewed that it is Elementary in the Seventh Chapter and first Proposition it is found in all herbs and fruits The difference of Spaws 3. The difference of Spaws is found to be notable Some are found to be so sharp or sowr that men make use of them instead of Vinegar Such a Spring is found in Nicana a Province of Sicilia In Germany the Fountain at Elleboga is of a wonderful Acidity Other Acid Springs are termed Winy because that by their sharpness they come near the grateful tast of Wine amongst which that is famous which is in the Earldom of Catzenellebocen in Germany at the Town Schwalbach In the Province of Lyons in France at the Town of St. Baldomare is a Fountain termed Fontaine forte that is the strong Fountain it supplieth the want of Wine and if that one fourth part of it be mixed with Wine it will want nothing of the tast of Wine if it is poured on Flour it will presently ferment They can boil no Meat in it for by reason of its subtilty it flieth away It is very wholsom so that the Inhabitants seldom use a Physician In Aquitaine not far from the City Bessa is the like Winy sharp Spring unto the waters of which if that you only admix the sixth part of Wine you will imagine that you drink pure Wine without any admixture of water Nigh to Rome is an Alomy sharp Fountain which being mixed with Wine maketh a very grateful Drink Great is the number of Acid Springs in the Vpper Germany whereof some flow into the Danube and others into the Rhine Very many are in the forementioned Earldom of Catzenelleboch in the Province of Triers in Tirolis Rhaetia Vindelicia a noted ane is near Anderna called Heilbrun In the Province of Toledo in Spain near the Village Valentiola are Springs which at the bottom are found Acid and of a Winy tast and in the upper part sweet which Baccius thinketh to happen because that the Nitrous and Acid parts do subside and sink to the bottom But I suppose if that the Relation be true that it proceedeth from the subtilty of the Spirit which being brought to the superficies presently do expire Other Acid Fountains are astringent and contracting the palate which is a token of Iron particles or of the admixture of Vitriol as also of Alom The Water of Acid Fountains in Rainy and Cloudy weather is found less Acid which is a sign of an admixture of condensated Air. Also if that the water be exposed to heat or if it stand in an open Vessel for some hours or if it be carried a long Voyage not well covered in cold Vessels it presently loseth its Acidity which is a sign that the Acidity of them dependeth on a subtile Spirit Yet they also have Atoms and the very Vitriol Alom Iron Salt Gravel and the like This is proved from the matter that is discovered to adhere to the Conduit-pipes The Studious may collect Examples by reading of Authors At least two hundred Acid Springs or Riverets run into the Rhine but by reason of the subtilty of the Spirits nothing of acidity is discovered in the Rhine Do you demand why there are no Acid Fountains in the Northern places I suppose that cause to be the defect of Subterraneous heat and an over great condensation of the Earth as also for that cause it cometh to pass that little or no Gold is found in those Regions Proposition VIII To explain the generation of hot Springs termed Baths and the places of the more famous of them Of the generation of hot Springs or Baths A Spring in Izland is judged the most fervid of them all whose water little differeth from that which hath arrived to the highest degree of heat and boyling on the fire But Caronius writeth that in Japan there is a Spring so hot that no water can be brought to that degree of heat by the most vehement fire It floweth not continually but twice in a day for one hour with a great force of spirits and maketh a great Pool which another hath informed me to be called by the Natives Singacko that is Hell After those the hot Fountains or Baths of Baden in Helvetia are famous Then the Baths of Appona in Italy Of Vulgar Baths there is a great number in the Vpper Germany as also in other places In Scotland is the Lake and River Nessa which is not hot yet it is never congealed with Cold. The cause and generation of Baths is first the admixture of Sulphureous particles whilst the water is carried through Subterraneous passages or rather whilst that it glideth through the Sulphureous Mines to a collection about the Springs 2. The vapours of Smoak and exhalations within the Earth where Sulphur is pure or impure as Peat Coal Amber and the like for these materials continually send forth a calid or warm fume which heat the waters carried thither or gliding through those places Yet particles of Alom are admixed to many nay the most Baths as also of Iron and Niter whence they have somewhat a sharp and astringent tast or sapor Almost all the Baths which we know flow without ceasing except the Pepper-Baths of Germany which are famous in Rhetia not far from Curia And besides Sulphur they contain something of Gold and not a little Niter The water of these Baths breaketh out every year about the third of May and it ceaseth to flow about the fourteenth of September The famous Baths in Germany are the Plumbariae in Lorrain Emsebadae above Constantina in Alsatia near Gebersweil in the Marquisate of Bada Wildbad in the Dukedom of Wertebergh The Blasianae near Tubin There are many also in Japan and the Indian Isles There are such hot ones in the Islands of the Azores that an Egg may be boyled in them Proposition IX To explain the generation of oyly and fat liquors flowing from the earth and to enumerate the places of the earth in which they are found Of oyly liquors Some Fountains send forth a bituminous liquor some a fat water or
water on which drops of oyl do flow In Scotland two miles from Edenborough a Fountain floweth on the whole Superficies of which drops of black oyl do swim the Inhabitants use it to mollifie the skin and to take away scabs So the River Cilicia tearmed Liparis was famous amongst the Ancients in which those that washed themselves were anoynted by the water whether it be so at this day I much doubt So likewise there was a Lake in Aethiopia which anointed those that swam it Also there was a Fountain in India which on a clear day sent forth a great quantity of oyl In Zant and about Dyrrachium and Appallonia as Vitruvius writeth there were Fountains which vomited out abundance of pitch with water There was a Lake in Babylon of great magnitude called Limme Asphaltis it had liquid Bitumen swiming upon it with which the black Semiramis encompassed Babylon with a Wall At this day also at Monasterium in Bavaria is the Fountain Degemsce on the top of which oyl swimmeth and is daily taken off The Acid waters of Schwalback if they be taken in a Vessel and have been settled for some days small drops of oyl swim on the top of them There is a greater quantity in the Fountain tearmed Oelbrum not far from Hagenaw at the Village Lamperscholch Also in the many Bathes are found bituminous particles if so be that they stood quiet for some days as in the Baths of the Kingdom of Naples tearmed the Bath of Petrolei Now the Fountains that send out not an oyl swimming on the water but a meer fat or bituminous liquor are also many Near Gersbachium in the Valley called Lebersthal from an antiquated and exhausted Mine oyl or bitumen floweth with which the Country Swains besmear their Cart-wheels Neither do the Inhabitants know its excellency In the Isle of Sumatra is a Spring from which Naptha like unto oyl floweth others say that it is a kind of Balsom they report Fountains of Amber to be there likewise In Peru near the sea is a bituminous Fountain sending forth a Branch or Riveret into the Sea The Natives use it instead of pitch neither do they use any other matter In Persia not far from Schimachia at or near the high Mountain Barmach in a Valley are about thirty Fountains of Bitumen or Naptha but runing in deep Wells with a great force the Depth is about two Ells wooden steps being made for the conveniency of descent it sendeth forth a Sulphureous and strong Spirit it is of a twofold colour in some red in others white The cause of these bituminous Fountains is a sulphureous and bituminous matter in the bowels of the earth thrust forth by a heat and spirit The cause of the differences is to be sought from the differences of the fat matters themselves as Succinum Amber Oyl of Petrolei Pitch Naptha and the like Proposition X. To explain the generation of bitter water and to reckon up the places of the earth in which they are found Of the generation of bitter waters and the places where they are found Many Fountains and Wells in the Regions of India on the Choromandel have bitter water although that they ebulliate in and flow from Rocks In Pontus a Region of Asia minor a little River tearmed Exampeus at the Town Callipadus is very bitter it rendereth the River Hypanis into which it floweth also very bitter They arise from impure Sulphur Bitumen Nitre Ink Copper as water left a long time in a Copper vessel acquireth a bitter taste The Lake Asphaltites in Palestine which is called Mare Mortuum or the Dead Sea hath a bitter water by reason of the impure Bitumen whence it ought to be referred to the fat waters of the former Proposition It sendeth forth a stinking scent and vapour all things without life sink to the bottom but it suffereth not any Animal to sink neither doth it grow sweet although that it continually swalloweth up the River Jordan It is venomous by reason that it containeth Arsnick Proposition XI Yo explain the cause of very cold Springs and to enumerate the places of the Earth where they are found The cause of cold Springs In the Province of Dauphin in France not far from Vienna is a Fountain of so great cold that the mouths of those that drink it are swelled with it neither can they endure their hands in it it is not diminished for the water that is drawn out of it nor augmented by the water poured into it In Arabia or Aethiopia are most cold Springs although that the heat of the Sun be most excessive there In Stiria not far from Gretz are Fountains so cold at the bottom that none can drink any water runing or drawn from thence In a mile from Calma a Spring sendeth forth water as it were boyling with a great wind when yet it is very cold hence they call it The mad water The cause of the coldness of these Fountains are 1. The admixture of Nitre and Alom also of Mercury Iron and the like 2. The depth of the Spring by reason of the defect of the Solary Beams and of the sulphureous subterraneous heat There are also some Springs which are sometimes cold and sometimes hot In Gatalonia the Lake and Fountain Salsula in the Winter is hot and in the Summer very cold This is common to it with many others I think the cause to be that in the Summer the pores of the Earth are open through which the hot Spirits break forth in the Winter they are closed whence within there are hot Furnaces that heat the waters So some Fountains are more hot in the night than in the day Proposition XII To explain the generation of those waters which seem to change bodies into another kind and to reckon up the places of the Earth where they are found There are some waters which change wood into the hardest stone In Ireland Of the generation of waters which change bodies into another kind c. above the City Armagh in a Pool not very large a stake of wood if it be fixed for some months the part that sticketh in the Mud will be iron the part which is touched with the water is turned into stone and the rest remaineth wood so Giraldus and Maginus relate but Brietius sayeth I know not by what authority that it is a meer fable The waters of Loches in Blois a Province in France turn all things put into it into stone At the City Senon in Burgundia near a Lake a Spring floweth which hardneth into stone Vitruvius saith that in Cappadocia between Mazaca and Tuana is a large Lake which changeth a reed or wood put into it in one day into stone In Bohemia near the Baths of Charles is a Fountain in which wood lying long is changed into stone Other waters are thought to change Iron into Copper which yet really they do not but by reason that waters themselves carry particles and spirit of Copper
and Vitriol therefore they dissolve the particles of Iron and by degrees take away from it which whilst that they do the Copper particles of the water are reposed in the place of the Iron ones taken away or there adhere whilst that they glide with the runing water The reason of those that change wood into stone are these 1. Some do not change the wood it self into stone but earthy stony and saline particles contained in the water do apply themselves to the wood and so as it were cover the wood with a stony crust and do not really change it 2. Some do not change the wood into stone but cause a stony hardness to the wood which some mineral waters may possibly do 3. If that some waters have truly changed wood into stone I conceive it to be done after this manner that chief difference is found by sight between the wood and the stone that in the wood there are certain long Fibres or Veins unto which the particles do cohere and those are less thick but in stone the particles are like unto Atoms without any certain extension into long Fibres If that therefore any water dissolve and as it were grind the particles cohering in the wood according to a long line so that now they do no more cohere after this mode but yet are more condensed there will be no more any great difference between the wood and stone as may be observed by our Eyes yet it is probable that these mineral waters communicate some substance to the wood it self There are other waters whose faculty is reported to be able to change the colours in the hair of man or beast Proposition XIII To explain the cause of poisonous and death-causing waters and to reckon up the places where they are Of poisonous waters Such is the Lake Asphaltites by reason of its Arsenical Bitumen In times past famous was the Fountain of Terracina which was called Neptunicus in the Region of the Volsci of which those that drank were deprived of their lives therefore it was filled up with stones by the Inhabitants In Thessalia a Fountain springeth of which no Cattle drink nor no kind of Beast approacheth Famous or rather infamous is the water which in the Region of Arcadia called Nonacris the Ancients write to drop exceeding cold from stony Rocks therefore called the Infernal and Stygian water which no vessel either of silver brass or iron could be preserved in without breaking And by this water Historians report that Alexander the Great was killed by Jolla Son of Antipater and that not without the infamy of Aristotle At this day many mortiferous waters are found in the Places or Regions called the Alpes but most of them are stopped with stones which is the reason that so few death-causing Fountains are known Now the generation of such water is if the water glide or flow through Arsenical Mercurial or Antimonial Earths and are impregnated with their fumes For as the smoak or fume of Arsnick killeth living creatures so waters impregnated with such a fume do the same Proposition XIV To explain the generation of coloured waters and their differences and to enumerate the places of the Earth in which they are found At Chinen in France water floweth from a Cave of somewhat a yellowish colour Of coloured waters In the Kingdom of Congo a Riveret floweth of a red colour into the Sea In some places waters flow of a black of a green and such like colours but they are but few The cause of the colour of these waters is that they glide or run from lands before they come to the Fountain Proposition XV. To explain the generation of Salt-waters and to reckon up the places of the Earth in which they are found Of the generation of Salt-waters The generation is twofold 1. From the Ocean they come through Subterraneous passages and flow to the Superficies of the Earth 2. They are generated of a Salt contained in the Earth such as is found in many places through which whilst the water glideth it conceiveth Saline particles and spirits before that it arrive at the Spring Great is the plenty and that known to every one of Salt Fountains We have spoken in the preceding Chapter and this matter is easily known by reason of the abundance of Salt almost every where lying hidden in the Earth seeing that Salt it self is an Element Proposition XVI To explain the cause of Ebullient Fountains and those that break out with a great spirit and wind and to enumerate the places of the Earth wherein they are found The cause is partly a Sulphureous spirit and partly a Nitrous spirit commixed with water in the Earth Of ebullient Fountains if that it be a Sulphureous spirit the waters are hot if Nitrous cold For neither are all the waters which ebulliate like to those that are hot hot but many of them are cold as is evident from that near to Culma called a mad water of which we have spoken in the Twelfth Proposition The River Tamayus in Galaecia ariseth from a Lake in its rising for some months of the year it sendeth forth a mighty noise In Japan that wonderful hot Fountain of which we have spoken in the Eighth Proposition not above twice every day breaketh forth for the most part for one hour now when that the water beginneth to flow it is carried with so great a force and vehemency of wind that it moveth the vast stones incumbent on the Well and leapeth to the height of three or four Ells with so great a noise like unto the discharge of Cannon In Westphalia a Fountain breaketh forth tearmed Bolderborn from its noise Most of the Spaws and Baths break forth with an abundance of wind and ebulliate as if they boyled a Sulphureous spirit causeth this in the Baths and in the Spaws the Spirits of Vitriol Nitre and the like Proposition XVII To enumerate the kinds of waters which have other certain wonderful properties and to explain the causes of them Unto this Classis all others ought to be reduced which cannot conveniently be referred unto the former sorts Other kinds of waters of wonderful properties So there is a Fountain in Portugal tearmed Cadina devouring all that is cast into it Also in times past there was another near to it rejecting all things cast into it but this latter is obstructed In Andalusia not far from the City Guadiana Eusebius Nierenburgius relateth that there is a Lake which sheweth the Seasons or Tempest for when that this is approaching it maketh an horrible noise which is oftentimes heard for the space of 18 or 20 miles In Calice in France is a Well into which if that a stone is cast in a noise will be heard like Thunder in the cavities of the Well In the Alpes are Wells whose water being drank off contracteth swellings of a great bigness hanging from their necks In the Kingdom of Granada at the Town Antiquarius is
a Fountain of so great force that it dissolveth stones Near unto Tours in France are Caves to be seen tearmed commonly Les Caves Gouttieres from the roof of which the water which falleth is formed into divers shapes as Nuts Almonds and the like The hot Fountain of Japan burneth all things and devoureth cloth iron flesh c. The studious may collect divers other examples from other Authors and reduce them to this Classis if that they seem not possible to be reduced to any of the former The Causes must be sought from the peculiar situation and property of each place Proposition XVIII To enumerate those Fountains which break forth at a set time not continually to explain the cause and those which ebb and flow Of Fountains which break forth at a set time not continually This Proposition belongeth not to this Chapter but to the preceding yet because it belongeth to the wonder of waters and was neglected in the former Chapter here it shall be explained In a Fountain situated on the top of an high Hill in the Province of Canaugh in Ireland the water ebbeth and floweth every day with the flux and reflux of the Sea yet the water is fresh The same is observed in the Fountain Louzara which is in the mountainous places of Galaecia called Cabreti 20 miles from the Sea Also in Aquitain in the Village Marsacus is a Fountain which imitateth the swelling of the Sea and swelleth with the increase of Garumnae in Burdeaux Elsewhere there are said to be Fountains which augment and decrease contrary to the swelling of the Sea In Wales near the mouth of the River Severn is a Pool called Linliguna which swalloweth in the Marine floods whilst that they arise but it is by no means filled with the same and the flood of the Sea ceasing then it riseth with a great force and vomiteth out the water with which it covereth the Banks In Biscay there are the four Springs Tamarici whereof three every day are so dried twelve times as if that no water were in them as Pliny reporteth But I question whether they be to be found at this day In Savoy is a Fountain of noted magnitude callen Wonderful which sinketh low twice in an hour and twice floweth and before that it floweth and doth break forth with a great noise it floweth into the Lake Burgites In the Mountains of Foix in Languedoc riseth the River Lers which in the Months June July and August ebbeth and floweth 24 times in a day See Bertius In a Region of Westphalia called Paderborn is a Fountain which ebbeth and floweth twice every day although it sendeth forth so much water that not far from the Fountain the water driveth four Water-mills and it breaketh forth with a mighty noise In the Province of Wallis in Germany is a Fountain called the Fountain of St. Mary it ceaseth to flow in the Autumn at the day dedicated to St. Mary and returneth in May. The Pool or Lake Maron in Palestine is so dry in the Summer and bringeth forth Herbs and Shrubs so high that Lions Wolves and other wild Beasts do abide there In Spain two miles from Valindolid is a Fountain which ariseth in May and falleth in November All Baths flow without any cessation or change except those that are in Rhaetia and are called the Pepper Baths for they flow only in the Summer from the third of May to the fourteenth of September then they cease CHAP. XVIII Of the Mutation of the places of the Water and Land or of the Mutation of the watery superficies into the earthy and the contrary Proposition I. To know the Superficies of the Earth which the water possesseth how great it is and that which the Earth occupieth Of the Superficies of the earth which the water possesseth WE cannot accurately know this because we are ignorant whether the Sea or Land doth possess the Superficies of the North or South Polaryland Moreover because the Superficies of the water as also of the land is terminated on the Globe by an irregular bending of the lines therefore it would be a very difficult task to compute the quantity of the Superficies of the water and land but as far as we are able to collect in gross from the inspection of the Terrestrial Globe the Superficies of the water and land seem almost equal so that the Superficies of the water is half to the Superficies of the land and so also is the Superficies of the land Proposition II. The Superficies of the Water as also of the Land is not at all times of the same magnitude but sometimes greater and sometimes lesser and when the Superficies of the Water is augmented the Superficies of the Land is diminished For the Sea overfloweth sometimes here sometimes there or taketh away and carrieth with it so therefore his Superficies is augmented more or less as it hath overflowed a great or less tract of Land as in times past it did in Thessaly Yet this variety as far as it is yet known hath a very little proportion unto the whole Superficies of the water it may be made great as we shall shew in the eighteenth Proposition Proposition III. To compute what quantity of Water the Earth containeth and what quantity of Land Of the quantity of Land and Water which the Earth containeth For the finding out the accurate and true quantity of water and land first we ought to know both the whole Superficies of the water as also its depth in divers parts of the Sea also the subterraneous heaps of water ought to be examined All which seeing that we cannot find out by any method therefore we cannot find out the accurate quantity of the water or land but only from certain Hypotheses viz. we laid down the Superficies of the water to be half the Superficies of the earth the profundity to be quarter or half a mile neither do we reckon the waters in subterraneous Channels The quantity of water may be thus found out Take a quarter or half a mile from the Semidiameter of the earth and the solidity of the Sphere may be found whose Semidiameter is equal to the residue let this solidity be taken from the solidity of the earth the half of the residue is the quantity of the water the same half substracted from the solidity of the whole earth leaveth the quantity of the earth unto which must be added a fourth or fifth part of the bulk of water or of the former half But these are uncertainties from supposed uncertainties or at least nigh unto truth Proposition IV. The Water may leave the shoar and place of the Earth which it doth occupy for divers causes so that the Land may appear dry where the Water or Sea was before and so a new Land may seem to be generated A Sevenfold Tract of Waters There are a sevenfold Tract of waters viz. 1. the Ocean 2. Gulphs or Bays of the Ocean 3.
Streights 4. Rivers 5. Lakes 6. Pools and 7. Marishes 1. Marishes may be exsiccated or drained either by subduction of the water or by exsiccation of the earth as none can doubt for in many Regions the Soil is fruitful where there were Marishes some years since as in Westphalia Gelderland Brabant Holland Muscovia 2. The same is the account of Pools seeing that they differ not much from Marishes Proposition V. Rivers leave their Channel or Shoar that is part of their Channel and afford new Land Rivers quit their Shoar and afford new Land 1. If that they carry much Terrestrial matter Sand or Gravel with them which sinketh to the bottom in progress of they time so augment the Altitude of the Channel that it is no more depressed than that place from whence the water floweth from the vicine earth but if that that matter sinketh into one place in part of the Channel it will separate one part which then at length will be dried up 2. If that the River take another Channel whether it be done by Art or Nature and a violent cause as by Wind Inundation or the like 3. If the Springs of the Rivers be obstructed or cease to send forth water the earth being fallen in or condensated or a great quantity of Sand being driven by the winds into the Fountains or adjacent places Examples of Rivers whose Channels are exsiccated at this time either in whole or in part are every where obvious in Writers yet not of great Rivers but of small or of the parts of any great Rivers So a Channel of an Arm of the Rhine which flowing by Leyden flowed in times past into the German Ocean now for some Ages deserted by the water at this day is land the Rhine stagnating between Leyden and the Vicus Cattorum The Shoars are uncovered from the waters of Rivers and that some Rivers run in a more narrow Channel than they did formerly is manifest from many examples and from thence that some at this day are not Navigable which formerly were may easily be collected the Altitude of the water being diminished and none at all to be left in their Channel at some time or other as in the River Scaldis Therefore Governours of Commonwealths have a great care that the Mud and Sediments be drawn from out the Channels of Rivers that they may remain navigable as is seen in many places But great Rivers cannot be dried up or changed into land except in many ages because that many lesser Rivers flowing from divers parts make them of which though some may be dried up or change their course yet all do not suffer the same except in a long space of time and the Channel is deeper But one heap or ridge of Sand may cause the River to run through another Channel and the former to be dried up yet it taketh not away the River except the Fountains or Branches of it be obstructed Therefore it is true that neither the Nile Tanais Albis or the Rhine or other Rivers always flowed or shall perpetually flow but that there was earth before and shall be afterwards where they now flow Proposition VI. Lakes are dried up and changed into Land Lakes dried up and changed into Land 1. If that a Lake be constituted from Rivers that flow in that mutation is made by the abduction withdrawing or cessation of the River and also by evaporation 2. If that a Lake receiveth waters by a subterraneous passage from the Ocean or Sea there will be a mutation of that Lake after that those subterraneous passages are obstructed and so Lakes are first changed into standing Pools and Marishes then at length into dry Land It is evident saith Aristotle that because a force of waters hath brought in Mud or something of that sort he speaketh of Lakes made of Rivers therefore standing Pools are made and the earth is dry and that their water being left and standing in succession of time it is exsiccated and altogether vanisheth So the Lands that touch upon the Lake Maeotis by the Soil brought down by the Rivers are increased so much that Ships now far less then those about 60 years since for traffick sake enter into it There are many examples found of small Lakes changed into dry Land especially in Holland Proposition VII Streights are exsiccated and changed into Isthmusses or Continents That happeneth Streights when that by reason of the continual sinking of the Terrestrial matter made in a long time the channel of the Streight is become so high that it denieth a passage to the Sea So it is very probable that the Isthmus between Africa and Asia was a Streight by which the Mediterranean and Red-sea were conjoyned as we shall shew in the following Proposition In many Streights at this day the Altitude of the Sea and the Altitude of the Channel is found lesser than in former time which is a certain token that those Streights shall have no water in them in the time to come and shall be changed into a dry Isthmus So the Streight through which the Atlantick Ocean maketh a Gulph which the Hollanders called Snyder-zee and the Texell at this day receiveth no larger landing Ships and the depth of the Sea is every year found lesser and the Land higher therefore where the water is at the Texell there after some Ages will be dry Land Concerning the Vlier the same in time to come will also happen Proposition VIII The Bays or Gulphs which the Ocean maketh between the Mid-lands in course of time do become dry places Bays or Gulphs in time do become dry Land This is done by a double cause 1. If that the Streight by which the Bay is conjoyned to the Ocean becometh an Isthmus or else be stopped by Sand and Gravel which is done in progress of time as we have said in the preceding Proposition For by this cause the Bay of the Ocean and a part or member of it shall be cut off from the body and shall become a Lake and then a standing Pool and Marish and by exsiccation become earth and no water shall be seen there 2. If that the very Channel of the Bay become higher by reason of the Rivers flowing into it and carrying Sand along with it that it in time cannot receive the Sea so by degrees the Sea will recede from the shoars of that Bay Therefore the Mediterranean the Baltick the Red Persian and other Seas that are Bays of the Ocean will cease in time to be Seas and will be changed into Lands which shall be fully proved in the following Proposition Proposition IX The Ocean for saketh some Shoars or Coasts so that it becometh Land where the Ocean formerly was Where the Ocean formerly was is now Land by its forsaking the shoars That happeneth for these causes 1. If that the force of water be broken at the shoars by Rocks here and there on the Coasts or Clifts in the Sea for that
force being broken the Terrestrial parts of the water subside and sink and augment the Altitude of the banks of Sand whence it cometh to pass that the impetus of the Ocean is more and more broken and therefore more Terrestrial matter subsideth so that the ridges being augmented they exclude the Ocean or make the Channel more shallow 2. It conduceth much to the Augmentation of the shoars if that the shoars be sandy and stony that the Ocean runing by can separate or take away little with it so that when it can take away nothing it always leaveth some particles that in progress of time the shoars become more high and force or stop the Ocean from its accustomed place 3. If that another adjacent shoar hath less solid Earth that is light and full of Caverns for the Ocean carrieth the dissolved and broken parts of Earth to the vicine shoars 4. If that great Rivers discharge themselves by the shoar into that Sea for these Rivers carrying with them much Sand and Mud or Gravel when that they arrive to the mouth and shoar where they endeavour to exonerate themselves into the Sea they leave it partly because the Channel is there more broad and partly because that the Sea resisteth the flux of them and this is chiefly observed in Regions which Rivers overflow every year 5. If that frequent Winds blow from the Sea to the shoar and the shoar be rocky and firm not sandy 6. If that the flux of the Sea be swift and vehement and the reflux slow and gentle for the gentle reflux taketh not away the matter that the swift flux brought but suffereth it to sink If that the shoar descendeth obliquely into the Sea for a long space and bend not down directly and perpendicularly for so the violence of the Sea decreaseth and leaveth the matter behind The Land of Aegypt caused by the Nile There are many places of the Earth which it is evident were formerly taken up by the Ocean Where Aegypt is in time past was the Sea as is proved by the testimony of the Ancients and by Experience at this day For the Nile flowing from the remote Regions of Aethiopia and every year entring the Channel where it swelleth it expandeth it self through all Aegypt where when the force of the River ceaseth the Mud sinketh and also the Terrestrial matter which the swift course of the River brought in and so Aegypt becometh higher And before that so much matter was brought in by the Nile then the Sea covered the Land of Aegypt but now the Sea is not admitted by reason of the height Of this Aristotle and Others are Witnesses his words are these This place and the whole Region of Aegypt which was only made by the River seemeth always to become more dry and because that the Marishes by degrees drying up the adjacent places began to be inhabited the length of time obliterated the beginning of it therefore all the mouths of the Nile except that of Canopus seem to be made by the Industry of Man and not by the River Moreover all Aegypt anciently consisted of a City called Thebes as is very manifest which Homer also declareth who flourished as I have said after this Mutation For he maketh mention of that place as if that Memphis as yet had no Being or at least not so big Seneca here explaineth it more clearly All Aegypt saith he is made up of Mud for if that we may credit Homer Pharos was so far from the Continent as that a Ship with a full spread Sail could harldly measure or encompass it in an whole day but it is now adjoyned to the Continent for the Nile flowing muddy and troubled and drawing much Mud with it and so adding to it the former Lands hath made Aegypt larger by an Annual increase Hence the soil is muddy and fat neither hath it any Intervals in it but hath increased to a solidity The Rivers Ganges and Indus by their Inundations both cause also Land Ganges and Indus in India both famous Rivers have caused the same by their Inundations that the Nile hath also Rio de la Plata in Brazil And it is probable that China was generated or at least augmented after the same mode by reason that a violent River which they call the Yellow River flowing from Tartary into China often overflowing although not in an Anniversary time hath so much Sand and Gravel that it maketh the third part of its water These Examples demonstrate the cause laid down in the fourth place viz. why Rivers should cause the Sea to forsake the Shoar but the Sea it self is also oftentimes the cause of its departure in divers Regions viz. whilst that it carrieth and layeth down the matter by which the Channel and Shoar acquire the greater Altitude and admit not the approach of the Sea so Holland Zeland and Gelderland were made for that the Ocean in time past possessed these Countries is known both from Ancient Histories or Monuments as also from the quality of the Soil it self The shells of Fishes found on the Clifts or higher parts of Gelderland not far from Noviomagus do sufficiently testifie the same as also shrubs and ouzey matter found in the profundity of the soil Add that the Sea is higher than the Land of these Regions and hath overflowed it and would cover it again if that it were not obstructed by banks of Sands and Ramparts Yet there are some that say they suppose that Holland and Zeland were brought from the Rhine and the Mosa which is not improbable Proposition X. To shew the Generation of Sandy-banks in the Sea and elsewhere The generation of Sandy banks We term those banks of Sand that are elevated above the Channel of the River to that height that they hinder the passage of Ships Neither do they differ from Rocks but that their parts do cohere and are condensated but the Sand-banks do not consist of parts very coherent But these words are oftentimes confounded The Sand-banks do either lie in the Channels of Rivers as many are in the Wolga and the Albis or at the mouths of Rivers which is frequent as in the Wolga and the Albis or on the Sea-shoar or amidst Seas The mode of the generation is the same by which we have said in the foregoing Propositions that the Channels of Rivers are dried and the Sea forsaketh the shoar for so oftentimes it cometh to pass that the Ocean before that it leaveth part of the Earth altogether first generateth this ridge of Sand not far from the shoar and so by degrees retreateth back and these banks become parts of the Continent After the same mode it hapneth in the Channels of Rivers before that they are wholly dried and forsaken by the water The most frequent cause is when Rivers are augmented by rain or dissolved snow and so run violently for then where their motion is more vehement and Channel more narrow they eat off the mud
not a long distance from the shoars which subsidency or sinking continued for many Ages at length caused Isles therefore in the middle of the Ocean are few Islands 1. Because that place is more remote from the shoar than that any of the eaten off parts should be carried thither 2. Because that the commotion and force of the water is greater there which moveth the earth of the Channel or rather promoteth the depth than suffereth Islands to be generated there 3. Because there are no Continents there therefore neither can troops or heaps of Islands be according to the first mode by which we have shewed such heaps of Isles to be produced yet in times past when that the middle of the Ocean was not where 't is now it is not unlikely that such Isles were here and by degrees were swallowed by the Ocean OF Absolute Geography SECT V. Containing an explication of the Atmosphere and the Winds In three Chapters CHAP. XIX Of the Atmosphere and Air. Proposition I. From the parts of the Earth as well dry as moist or from the Earth and Water vapours and fumes do continually exhale into that space which is about the Earth THE Cause is twofold first the Celestial heat of the Stars especially the Sun and Moon Of vapours and fumes The other is a Terrestrial heat or subterranean or rather terrestrial fire or which is admixed with the parts of the earth For we see that almost all bodies the least fire being moved towards them send forth a fume Seeing therefore that both the Celestial and Terrestrial heat is naught else but a certain fire therefore it is also necessary that vapours and fumes should be advanced by it from the parts of the earth So the truth of the Proposition is evidenced à priori Experience also confirmeth the same For those that travel in the night time especially when the Moon shineth and that towards the water discover many vapours to wander and be advanced about the Superficies of the earth Also it is vulgarly known that in the day the Sun doth raise many vapours also when that a mist ariseth upwards which is a certain token of rain to follow Proposition II. The Atmosphere is a space about the whole earth in which the exhalations raised from the earth are always present And it is uncertain whether that anything or body else be contained in it besides these exhalations It is also taken for the exhalations themselves about the whole earth There is no small controversie amongst modern Philosophers Of the Atmosphere concerning the body which consisteth about the earth For many Mathematicians of sound knowledge determine that there is nothing besides exhalations elevated from the earth and therefore they take the Atmosphere and Air for one and the same and immediately after the Atmosphere place the Aetherial substance But other Philosophers suppose that besides these exhalations in the space about the earth that there is a certain peculiar and simple body which they call Air although that they freely grant that exhalations may be changed into Air and contrariwise into clouds and thick vapours The same Persons after this Air even to the Lunary Orb place another subtile thin body different from the Aether which indeed they tearm Fire but they confess that it is less properly done and that it doth not agree with our fire for it is a calid substance not burning dry and very subtile not to cause the refractions of the rayes of the Sun and Stars which yet they will have to be done in this Air. Those being well considered these two opinions of the Philosophers seem rather to differ in words than in matter it self For as for the Air because that they grant it so gross that a refraction of rayes may be made in it and that it may be generated from exhalations by a light mutation the Air seemeth nothing else but a subtile exhalation although it was not exhaled from the earth As for the Sublunary Fire when that they confess that it is so improperly tearmed but they affirm that it is so tenuous that it causeth no refraction of rayes this seemeth little to differ from the Aether We affirm therefore that the Atmostphere and Air are a body about the earth on which the rayes falling are refracted laying aside the controversie whence this body hath its original which definition agreeth with the former For neither is it likely that any exhalations can be elevated from the earth so subtile that they should cause no refraction or impediment to the luminous rayes proceeding from the Aether yet if that such be granted we cannot know their Altitude and whether that they be excluded from the Atmosphere which yet if that any one will sharply urge supposing that the little fires or rayes cast from the Sun on the earth again recoil to the Sun he will not deny but that the latter definition is commodious Therefore the Atmosphere and Air are naught else but a contexture of many small bodies which adhere to the earth as a down or wool circumvesteth a Peach Proposition III. Sometimes more sometimes lesser exhalations are drawn from the earth especially in divers places Of exhalations The cause is 1. The various elevation of the Sun above the Horizon or depression beneath it 2. The diversity of the age of the Moon and its elevation above the Horizon 3. The rising and setting of the other Stars and their constitution above the Horizon 4. The diversity in the parts of the earth them selves for watery and humid places do more easily send forth vapours than earthy and dry Proposition IV. The exhalations which constitute the Atmosphere are of a divers kind especially in sundry Regions viz. watery saltish earthy sulphureous spirituous The sensible compounded exhalations or parts of the Atmosphere are divers viz. mixed of simple particles Of the exhalations which constitute the Atmosphere The cause is because that in the parts of the earth such bodies are of a divers sort and are advanced by heat some more easily and other some with greater difficulty Concerning the earthy particles some one may doubt because that those are scarcely apt to be elevated 1. By reason of the smalness of their dusts which are light seeing that gravity is an affection of compacted bodies 2. By admixture of sulphureous particles which violently carry those earthy ones with them Moreover that there are sulphureous particles in the Air is proved from the fiery Meteors Lightnings Thunder and the like yea a sulphureous odor or scent after Thunder and Lightning manifestly asserteth the same As for the watery parts we ought not to question for saline and spirituous exhalations by reason of their tenuousness are easily exhaled from the earth Little Animals generated in great number and abundance in the Air confirm the same The Aristotelians divide exhalations into two kinds to wit vapours and fumes Vapours are generated of water and easily return into the same again Fumes
Air F H being rarified now requireth more space Now you will find the degrees of accretion and diminution of the heat and cold if that you divide the Line F A on the Table into certain parts of numbers Or without putting a Vessel under set the Glass L H even at the extremity L have a Globe with a little hole from the side and let this Globular Vessel be filled with Air for so also the degrees of heat will be shewed by the ascent and descent of the water Proposition X. The serene Air may be carried so by a most vehement fire that it may occupy a space 70 times greater than it did before On the contrary it may be so condensed in a Wind-gun that it may only possess a 60 part of the former space but the heat of the Sun bringeth not so great a rarification or the cold so great a condensation to the Air The same is proved from that that if you take an Aeolopile and heat it with fire so that it may then contain 13 ounces but the same being cold and returning to its former natural estate it will contain 13 ounces a dram and a half Therefore the space that the Air occupied whilst that it was hot is greater than the space that the Air possessed when refrigerated that the difference of the space is that part of the Aeolopile that receiveth half a dram of water if that the whole receiveth 13 ounces with half a dram and the part of this Aeolopile is almost the 70 part of the whole space in the Aeolopile therefore the Air being hot hath possessed a space 70 times greater than it doth when it returneth to its natural estate Proposition XI Why in the places in the Frigid Zone at the time in which the Sun ariseth not altogether unto them on some days the Air is clear and serene and for the most part cloudy and foggy Of the Air in places of the Frigid Zone I answer the cause of this gross and almost perpetual Mist or Fogg is the small heat of the subterraneous Earth it self or else it is derived from the Sun and likewise the Moon which in the time of the obscurity of the Sun remaineth many days and nights continually above the Horizon the other Stars which heat because it is weak cannot dissipate this Mist Now that some days or nights afford a serenity of the Air this happeneth not because the thick vapours are attenuated but because that they either sink down into the earth or else are forced into other places by the winds Proposition XII Why oftentimes in the greatest cold of the Winter the Air is yet subtile and serene when that yet the cold condensateth and contracteth the Air The Air subtile and serene in the greatest cold of the Winter Cold is twofold Moderate or Extream Moderate cold rendereth not the Air serene but cloudy by reason that vapours are elevated but not discussed by that little heat which is mixed or adjoyned to that cold But an extream cold maketh the Air serene for a twofold reason 1. Because it rendereth the grosser vapours of the Air more gross and so causeth them to fall and make the Air more subtile 2. Because that the pores of the earth are shut and bound up and the vapours themselves cannot exhale and render the Air turbid The Sea it self indeed is not bound up with Ice yet the particles are so condensated with Ice that it is not so apt for exhalations although it sendeth forth many for the condition of it and the earth are different Proposition XIII Why the Air being beheld at the Horizontal Line appeareth more thick and cloudy than that in which we are The cause is twofold 1. Because that the Air about the Horizon is indeed more cloudy The other is a fallacy or deception of the sight or judgment from our sight for the eye apprehendeth the distances of columns placed in a long order and series and therefore as the judgment supposeth the remote columns to be conjoyned so also it apprehendeth not the distances of the particles of the Horizontal Air but imagineth them conjoyned but the eye beholdeth the distances of the elevated Air under greater Angles and therefore better apprehendeth it The same is the reason why the Air which appeareth cloudy to us removed from it when we come to it or are in it seemeth less misty or cloudy Proposition XIV Whether that the Altitude of the Atmosphere or Air above the Earth be the same in all places at one and the same time and whether its figure be spherical Of the Altitude of the Atmosphere That the Altitude is not the same but divers in sundry places seemeth to follow from thence that the Sun is only Vertical to one place at one time and it sendeth forth oblique rayes and therefore more weak unto other places by how much the place is more remote from the Sun and nearer to the Poles therefore the pores of the rayes of the Sun are very different to the elevating of the vapours and therefore they are raised to different Altitudes to wit in a place unto which the Sun is vertical his Altitude is the greatest in the opposite place the lesser in the places about the Pole moderate so that the Air receiveth an oval figure But the contrary is more probable viz. that the Altitude of the Atmosphere is the same in all places for although that the Vapours and Air be more elevated in some places than in others yet because that the Air is fluid and tendeth by its gravity to the Center of the earth therefore the more elevated part of the Air presseth down the Air placed under it and this thrusteth down another more depressed until all the parts acquire the same Altitude And after the same mode the Spherical Figure of the Air shall be demonstrated as in the thirteenth Chapter we have proved with Archimedes concerning the water by reason that the same Hypotheses are prevalent here which we there assumed to wit that the part of the Air less pressed is expelled by that which is more pressed for every part is pressed by the Air that is above it wherefore the Figure of the Air is spherical not oval as some will have it but if the forementioned Hypotheses be not granted the demonstration falleth Des Cartes also maketh the Air oval in figure for a peculiar reason see Chapter fourteen Proposition XV. Condensation or Rarefaction of Air changeth not its Altitude Condensation of Air changeth not its Altitude Because that the whole Atmosphere is not condensed but only some parts and at all times some parts are condensed sometimes these sometimes those wherefore the condensation or rarefaction of one time doth no more alterare the Air than the condensation or rarefaction of the first time There only seemeth to be a difference that at one time there may be a greater condensation or rarefaction than at another but this
difference can little augment the Altitude Proposition XVI The Altitude of the Atmosphere or Air is not only the same in divers places but it remaineth the same and that constantly at all times both Winter and Summer The Altitude of the Atmosphere is always the same in divers places For although that heat in the Summer of our place may more elevate also our Air more than in Winter yet because that the Winter is at the same in another place of the earth the Air is less raised in it wherefore part of our Air shall be moved towards the Air of those places where the Air is less elevated viz. to the more depressed place as we have shewed in the fourteenth Proposition And on the contrary whilst that the Air of the place where we are is depressed by reason of the cold of the Winter part of this Air where the Summer or the greater heat is shall be moved towards our place viz. until the whole Air be equally distant from the Center of the earth The same is the reason concerning the Day and the Night for whilst that the Air is depressed and contracted in the Night to us in another place it is more rarefied and so is moved towards the Air of our place until it again make a spherical figure and because that all are equal on every side therefore the name Altitude shall remain in every time But because that the Air is condensed more in one time and place than in another that difference seeing that it is very small can very little vary the Altitude as we have shewed in the precedent Proposition The same is the account of Rains or Mists or Vapours that are in ours or in another place for to these it seemeth that the Altitude of the Air should be less or more But I answer that there is scarce any time in which in some place of the earth it raineth not and that the Mists fall not and therefore when that it raineth in one place the Air becometh not lesser than it was before because that before it rained in another place and so the reason is equal and the quantity of the Air is neither augmented nor diminished Proposition XVII By how much the Air is more cold by so much the more it is condensed and therefore for the most part more condensed in the Winter than in the Summer to wit in some places of the Earth also in the Night than in the Day Now watery thick exhalations in the Winter and the Night cause and augment that condensation especially in the Morning and Evening The Colder the Air the more condensed The truth of the Proposition is manifest from the preceding Propositions neither doth it obstruct for that part of the more not Air is moved to the more cold as to a more depressed place because that not that it self but another adjoyning approachment by reason of continual protrusion and if that that happeneth yet in a cold place that becometh also cold Proposition XVIII There are three Regions vulgarly made in the Air whereof the middle is that in which the Snow Rain and Hail is generated The first is that in which we are extending it self even to the middle Region the third is that which beginneth the uttermost bound of the middle Region and extendeth it self to the utmost superficies of the Air even to the Sublunary fire as the Aristotelians affirm Three Regions in the Air. The middle Region is more cold than the first and third which are reckoned more hot but the third by reason that it containeth more subtile fiery and sulphureous parts of exhalations which fly to it about the place of the watery particles or are thrust down as more light The Aristotelians say that it is hot by reason of its vicinity to the fiery-Sphere But the first because that the Rays of the Sun falling are â—eaâ— there reflexed and so duplicate the heat It happeneth that some particles of subterraneous fire exhaling are in this Region But the middle Region iâ— more cold by reason that the reflected Rays are there vicine to those that fall in on the Earth neither do they contain any fiery sulphureous particles but watery ones for the sulphureous and fiery ones that have carried up the watery ones fly higher Proposition XIX By how much that place of the Earth unto which the Sun is vertical recedeth to the Pole or by how much the place is more near the Poles by so much the less distant the place of the Air is from the Earth in which the Rain Snow Hail begin to be generated The reason is That the Rays of the Sun do fall more obliquely on the places about the Poles than on the places about the Aequator and therefore the Rays refracted are much withdrawn from those falling in and so cause lesser heat and for a lesser space than the Rays under the places of the Sun or under the Torrid Zone and so in a more nearer place the watery vapours may unite to generate watery Meteors Corollary The Superficies terminating the first Region of the Air is of an oval figure or rather Elliptical or Sphere like protuberating in the Torrid Zone Proposition XX. By how much the place of the Earth is nearer the Pole by so much distance the Region of the Air is distant from that Earth that beginneth the third or in which the more subtile and Sulphureous particles are For there are the fewer and more subtle particles in part of the Atmosphere by how much it is nearer the Pole because that the heat of the Sun elicitateth fewer from the Earth Therefore because that there are fewer particles of the third Region under the Frigid Zone than in the temperate and in this fewer than in the Torrid and yet the utmost bound of that third Region is equally distant from the Center of the Earth See Proposition 16. according to the sixteenth Proposition Thence it followeth that the beginning of the Region under the Torrid Zone is far more distant from the Center of the Earth than the beginning of that in the Torrid and Temperate Zone Corollary The Superficies terminating the second Region of the Air or distinguishing it from the third is Spherical and protuberating in the Frigid Zone All these must be shewed to Youth by Diagrams Proposition XXI The Rays of the Sun Moon and Stars do not directly arrive at our eyes from the Aether through the Air but where they enter the Air they are withdrawn or deflected a little from a direct passage which the skilful in the Opticks term to refract the Rays and so those Rays refracted come to our eyes and shew us the Star Of the Rays of the Sun Moon and Stars This part which treateth of the refraction of light is the most subtle part of the Science of the Opticks for Experience testifieth that Rays proceeding from any visible body if from one medium they fall in upon another that is
from the middle and sendeth forth rays it signifieth a moist and windy season 3. If that the Sun be pale in his setting but if it be red the Air will be quiet and serene the next day 4. If the Sun being pale setteth in black Clouds it signifieth a North-wind 5. If that the Moon be red like unto gold it is deemed a certain sign of a Wind according to the Verse Pallida Luna pluit rubicunda fiat alba serenat 6. A circle about the Moon 7. If that the Northern-horn or corner of the Moon appear more extended a North-wind is approaching 8. If that the Southern a South-wind is at hand 9. The rising of the Moon and the more noted Stars as of the Bear Orion and especially the Goats with the Sun 10. If the small Stars in Cancer termed Asellos be covered with a Cloud if the Northern of them be covered the Wind will be South if the Southern be covered it will be North. 11. For the most part Winds begin to blow when that the Wind ceaseth 12. When a certain noise and murmur like to an Ebullition is heard in the Sea 13. The Ancients also prognosticated from the Raven the Dolphin and other Animals 14. From fiery Meteors as from Lightning and Falling-Stars but not from the Ignes fatui Proposition XVIII Why in the Spring and Autumn the Winds are more frequent and blow with greater force than in the hot Summer or cold Winter Greater and more frequent Winds in Spring and Autumn than in Summer and cold VVinter In the Spring it is supposed to be partly by reason of the dissolving of Snow especially in Mountainous places partly because that the Pores of the Earth are then opened and send forth many exhalations partly because that the Air and Vapours are then more thin when that they were condensed in the Winter Add that for the most part in the Month before the beginning of the Spring and in the very Spring many Rays do fall by reason that humid Constellations then have possessed those houses of the Zodiack into which on the entrance of the Sun we account the beginning of the Spring and also in Autumn the frequent Rays and Exhalations are to be accounted the cause of the Winds as well as in the Spring by reason that a moderate heat proceeding from the Sun advanceth the Vapours and Exhalations yet such as are more thick and less attenuated But in the heat of Summer there are no Winds for the most part for the same reason by reason of which Rays are very seldom seen at that Season viz. because that the Sun overmuch attenuateth the Exhalations and doth not permit them so to conjoyn or meet in such a quantity as is required to the generation of the Winds Which cause is not general or always true and neither is it generally true that in the heat of Summer there are no Winds for here we are only to understand it concerning that which oftentimes happeneth But in the sharp Winter the winds are more rare and that by reason that both fewer Vapours are raised from the Earth and those also that are elevated are either condensed into Clouds or are so dissipated by Frost that they cause no wind Proposition XIX In what Altitude of the Air or in what Region of the Air the Winds begin to blow In what Region the Winds begin to blow There are some that suppose the winds not to exceed the lower Region of the Air because that they discover that the tops of the high Mountains as Olympus feel no Blasts But I question the Observation seeing that the Smoak cast forth from the top of Mount Aetna is discerned to be moved to and fro by the wind therefore I suppose that such a windy commotion may be caused also in the upper Region of the Air. Proposition XX. Vnto what space one and the same Wind may extend it self How far one and the same Wind may extend it self There is great diversity in this matter for the winds blowing from the East to the West under the torrid Zone seem to encompass the whole Earth and those also that blow either from the North or South for many days and long spaces are wont to accompany and follow Mariners The same seemeth true concerning collateral Lines but this diversity is because that the same wind is different in divers places as we have shewed in the Tenth Proposition in the end of the explication of the first cause CHAP. XXI Of the Winds in particular and Tempests IN the foregoing Chapter we have alledged the distribution and differences or rather the denominations of the Winds which they receive from the quarter from whence they blow or seem to blow which division also is accidental by reason that they are taken in respect of a certain place of the Earth unto which those Quarters are related Now in this Chapter we shall alledge the divisions and Phaenomena which are in a certain time of the year or else are proper to certain tracts of the Earth although that we desire to have more and those likewise more accurate Observations concerning these things But we will produce what we have collected with much labour from the Diaries of the Seamen Proposition I. One Wind is constant and another inconstant Of Winds constant and inconstant That is a constant wind which at the least for one or two hours bloweth from the same quarter That is an inconstant wind which sometimes bloweth and other some is changed into other winds blowing from other quarters The causes of the more or less duration of the same wind also of the swift immutation seemeth to be 1. if that it be from a general cause or from a cause less constant So Winds proceeding from the motion of the Air with the motion of the Sun in the torrid Zone are constant so those also that blow from the dissolving of the Snow especially in the Mountains 2. If that by chance there be no such vapours in other quarters which are apt to generate Winds 3. If that the circumambient Air about the Cloud of which the Winds are generated be more thick and granteth no passage to the Exhalations but if that the Air be not so thick or more relaxed and that few Vapours be here and there in divers places and quarters and lastly if that the general causes do cease then indeed the Winds are found variable which are for the most part gentle Proposition II. One Wind is general and another particular Of general and particular Winds The general Wind is termed by Mâ—riners a Passant wind which at many places at once in a long tract of Earth bloweth on the Sea almost for a whole year That is termed a particular on the contrary which bloweth not at once in many places for a whole year Now a general Wind is hindred 1. In the parts of the Sea near the Earth for here Vapours from other quarters do interpose
or force in and therefore a general Wind is considered especially in the midst of the Sea most remote from the Land 2. Yet another wind may also blow in the midst of the Sea viz. if that in another a Cloud or other cause generating of a wind be very great From these two Causes it happeneth that a general wind is less or more constant or continual in divers placer Now the general winds are only found in the Sea of the torrid Zone or that which lieth between the Tropicks about the whole Earth yet in some places it extendeth it self without the Tropicks the space of 7 degrees and they are called Eastern that is the East-wind or collateral to the East as the South-East North-East viz. which blow from the East towards the West for the whole year But they do not consist with the like constancy in all the parts of that Sea but in some they are more hindred and in some less They are more constant in the Pacifick Ocean viz. in that part of it which lieth between the Tropicks so that Ships that loose from the Port of Aquapulco in New Spain in America towards the Philippin Isles that is such as steer their course from the East to the West oftentimes for 60 degrees Sail continually without any alteration or furling of the Sail with a constant East or North-East wind neither unto this day hath any Ship in that most long Voyage of 1650 miles been cast away Whence the Mariners say that they may sleep securely in this Voyage neither is there any need of guiding the Ship seeing that the general Wind bringeth the Ship to the wished Port for here other winds do impede the general Wind. The same constancy of this same Easterly wind is found in the Sea from the Cape or Promontory of Good-hope in the bounds of Africa or rather from that procurrent part of Africa which lieth in the Torrid Zone even to Brazil in the midst of which Voyage lieth the Isle of St. Helena unto which Mariners returning from India unto Europe are wont to direct their Course The Isle of St. Helena is distant from the Promontory of Good-hope 350 Miles and is oftentimes accomplished in sixteen days or also in twelve as the general wind is either vehement or slack for in this there is not a perpetual likeness the Sea-men using the same security when that they have first sailed to the Parallel of that Island for the Promontory of Good-hope lieth without the Tropicks which we have said that they use who Sail in the Pacifick Ocean from Aquapulco to the Philippins yea when that they have passed the Promontory of Good-hope they judge themselves to have escaped all danger and variation of the winds and sleep securely the wind constantly filling their Sails towards that Island and Brazil But yet this only is their great care that they may not Sail beyond the Island seeing that it is a very small one for if that they have passed it the eighth part of a mile they cannot regain it viz. an Easterly wind forcing them towards the West therefore then they are forced with great loss of their Voyage to make to the Coasts of Brazil or the other Isle called Ascension to water at If then you demand by what course they Sail when that the Ships make a contrary Voyage in this Sea viz. whilst that they steer from the Philippin Isles unto New Spain or from Brazil and the Isle of St. Helena unto the Promontory of Good-hope whilst that they Sail from India in these Voyages the Reader must know that Mariners use a threefold mode for either they navigate the Sea scituated without the Tropicks therefore they do not touch at the Isle of St. Helena whilst that they Sail from Europe into India or where necessarily they must pass by this they do not directly steer their course from the West to the East but obliquely from the North the Collateral quarter of it to the South or the Collateral quarter of it or lastly they choose such a time of Navigation in which they know that that general wind is impeded often by others But this latter because that it happeneth rarely therefore they rather make choice of the two former Modes of which we sâ—ll speak more in the Chapter of Navigation Therefore there are two Seas of the Torrid Zone in which that general Oriental wind with its Collaterals reigneth throughout the whole year viz. that which lieth between the procurrent of Africa and Brazil the other is that which is extended between New Spain or rather between America and the Oriental Islands of which the Philippins are a part The third part of this Sea under the Torrid Zone viz. between the Procurrent of Africa and the Philippins or Oriental Islands is not indeed destitute of this general wind but oftentimes it is hindred in this Sea by reason of the frequency of Islands which hindrance yet in some places is more frequent than in other some Between Mozambique and India the general wind is of most force in January February March April in other Months other winds do blow of which we shall speak in the following Proposition This general wind is more hindred in the Sea of the Indian Isles At the Isle of Banda in the Month of May the Oriental winds begin to be prevalent being very violent and accompanied with rain at Malacca in September and in other places otherwise as we shall shew in the following Proposition See Proposition 3. Yet this you must know that this general wind doth not equally extend it self in these Seas towards the Tropicks in all parts but that there is a great difference in this For the Tropicks are distant from the Aequator on both sides 23 ½ deg but the general wind may be discovered in one Meridian unto the Latitude of 20 degrees in another Meridian unto 15 in another unto 12. So in the Indian Ocean when in the Months of February and January the East wind or South or South-East bloweth it is not discovered until you come to the 15 degree of Latitude So unto those that Sail from Goa unto the Promontory of Good-hope here a general wind meeteth them at the 12 deg of South Latitude and at the 28 degree of the same Latitude accompanieth them So also Mariners have observed that no general wind bloweth between the 4. degree of Northern Latitude even unto the 10 or 11 deg between Africa and America for when they have Sailed by that wind from St. Helena towards the Aequator even unto the 4 deg of Northern Latitude then are they destitute of that wind even until they come unto the 10 degree of Latitude And from that degree even unto the 30 the North-East is again manifestly found continually to blow although that the 30 degrees be 7 degree from the Torrid Zone Yet notwithstanding in the 6 7 and 8. degree of Parallel Latitude it also bloweth in some places but in
all places almost in the Parallels of the 10 deg even unto the 30 deg North. After the same manner beyond the Tropick of Capricorn in the Sea between the Promontory of Good-hope and Brazile the South-East wind bloweth even unto the 30 deg of Latitude that is 7 degrees beyond the Torrid Zone towards the South and that through the whole year And although as we have said that this general wind is not discovered on all Coasts much less in Mediterranean places yet in some it is sufficiently observable So on the Coasts of Brazile Easterly unto the Coasts of Loango the South-East is a Quotidian wind although that other winds do admin themselves There is a threefold Cause of this continual general wind alledged by Modern Philosophers for both it and the Torrid Zone were unknown to the Antients who have not so much as mentioned it Some Determine that the Sun is the cause of this wind blowing from the East to the West by reason that by its great faculty it rarifyeth the Air in the Torrid Zone and so it thrusteth it forwards from the East to the West seeing that the Sun it self goeth this way Some and those of the Opinion of Pythagoras that Determined the Heaven to stand still and the Earth to moved round some of them I say supposed this general wind to Proceed from hence viz. that whilst the Earth is moved round and the Air with it this less followeth the motion of the Earth but is somewhat more slower to motion and therefore whilst that we are carried with the Earth from the West to the East the Air moved with less celerity to the same quarter seemeth to meet us and to be moved from the East to the West when that yet we do rather meet it See Des Cartes in his 222 Proposition of his Principels Des Cartes alledgeth the third Cause and that altogether new in the 222 Proposition in his Principles Where he endeavoureth to shew that the Moon causeth this motion as well as the motion of the Sea from the East to the West But because that his Opinion cannot be understood except that all his Philosophical Hypotheses should be Explained therefore we shall say nothing concerning it here especially seeing that we shall shew in another place that that Cause is not true I approve of the first Cause the second seemeth therefore not to be received because that many Copernicans approve not of it and no reason can be given why this wind should be found to blow only between the Tropicks or to the 30 deg of Latitude and not in the whole temperate Zone Proposition III. Some Winds are Periodical and fixed others wandering and Erratick Some winds fixed others wandering Those are termed fixed and periodical which blow on certain daies and then cease for a certain number of daies until that they begin to blow again Some return in the space of half a year othersome are Monthly which return in the interval of one or two Months Also the fixed winds are otherwise subdivided viz. some when that they begin to blow continue for some Months others for half a year others for a Month others for a few daies Amongst these those are chiefly observed by Mariners which blow for some Months in certain places of the Sea and they call these winds as also the times wherein such winds blow Motions or Moussons And such Motions are more especially notable in the Indian Ocean from Africa to the Philippine Isles although that they be not wanting in other places there is a very great moment to be placed in the observation of these Motions for Seamen ought to choose the time of them for the Voyage that they intend to that same quarter or that which is collateral unto which that wind bloweth neither to undertake a Voyage to the quarter of this Motion but to expect the contrary Motion For in the parts of the Indian Ocean where that one wind ceaseth to blow for some Months another succeedeth contrary to the former and continueth with the same constancy until that it hath compleated its time and therefore they call these Contrary Motions They term those the time of the mutation of those Motions which intercede between the end of one Mousson and the begining of the contrary For one Motion ceasing another doth not presently begin to blow but some days fall between some times more sometimes fewer also more in some places and fewer in other some And in these intermedial daies in which no certain Motion bloweth the wind is variable the calm dangerous and for the most part the Sea is tossed with uncertain waves and sudden Tempests arise some of these Motions return twice in a year but not with the same vehemency whence Mariners term the one the great Motion the other the lesser 1. In that part of the Atlantick Ocean that lyeth in the Torrid Zone as also that which is in the Temperate Zone the North wind perpetually bloweth in the Months of October Months most fit to taka a Voyage from Europe to India November and January And therefore these Months are chiefly fit to undertake a Voyage in from Europe to India that they may pass the Aequator by the help of those winds For it is manifest by experience that some Ships that have set Sail from Europe in March have arrived no sooner at Brazile than those that have set Sail in October viz. both of them have come thither in the Month of February being helped by the North wind Yet because that this wind is not so continual and certain therefore Mariners are not wont to call it a Motion Neither is it an easie matter to render a cause of this wind in these Months unless you will refer it to copious thick vapours or to a continnual pressure made from thick Clouds But those that have wintered in Nova Zembla testifie that there is a most frequent North wind all the time of the Winter where this effect cannot be ascribed unto the Sun rarifying the Air seeing that he lyeth obscured under the Horizon Yet I suppose that in general the Cause may proceed from the dissolving of Snows or gross Vapours or Clouds collected in the Winter in the Northern and Southern places especially on the Mountains Which I am induced to believe by this Argument more especially because that these Motions blow for the most part from the North and South quarters or the Collateral unto them Therefore by reason that Snow and thick Clouds are dissolved in the Northern places by the Sun especially in that half of the year in which he passeth through the North part of the Ecliptick therefore those Motions shall then be Northernly After the same manner in the Southern or Antartick places for the other half of the year the Sun dissolveth the Snow and the thicker Clouds therefore then the Motion shall be discovered Southerly Now that these Motions blow more from the Sea in the Collateral quarters
Sea and the like is in Guzurat but for very many Months when it beginneth to blow in Congo and Guzurat in September it continueth even to March The Anniversary wind of the Grecians which they call Ornithia or the Bridges wind this they say bloweth after the Vernal Aequinox the Sun ascending to the Vertex of the Europeans Proposition V. Why the Etesian winds blow not in Italy France Germany Persia and other Regions especially seeing that they are more near the Northern Mountains from whence we assert the Etesian winds of the Grecians Congo and Guzurat do arise and blow The Etesian winds blow not in all Regions though near the Northren Mountains The Question is of no small moment and I wish that we had more accurate Observations concerning this matter viz. the notations of the winds which at that time are observed in each Region whether in every Year the same never return Yet if that any thing must be said to the Question these seem convenient 1. We cannot deny but that the North wind often bloweth in our Canicular or Dog daies 2. That it is discovered less continual and in each year peradventure the Cause is the often blowing of other winds which hinder the discovery of the same 3. We may say that the Mountain from which this first resolution of the Snow begineth is scituated directly from Greece and therefore the first Canicular wind is carried hither but the Vapours are carried hither from the Snow of the other Mountains because that here they find a free passage made but I shall reject these my extemporay thoughts when that I shall see a better reason and more accurate Observations Proposition VI. Some winds are proper and almost perpetual to some place or tract of Land others are ceasing Places which have a certain wind at a fixed time Those places of the Earth are very few which have a certain wind at a fixed time viz. these 1. The places of the Torrid Zone especially of parts of the Pacifick and Aethiopick Sea scituate in the Zone enjoy a perpetual wind viz. an Oriental wind or its Collateral which they call a General wind as we have shewed in the second Proposition where we have treated largely of it Yea this wind is not so much to be reckoned amongst the proper winds but rather to be determined to be common to all places for although by accident it happeneth that it be not discerned in all places viz. because other winds blow more strong yet it is proper to some the Cause is alledged in the place cited 2. On the Coasts of Peru and part of Chili and to the adjacent Sea the South wind is almost perpetual and his Collateral wind at the West It beginneth at the 46 deg of Latitude and bloweth to Panama the American Isthmus and causeth that in few daies Ships arrive from Lima at Panama laden with Gold Silver c. But it requireth many daies sail from Panama to Lima. But this wind bloweth not in the Sea remote from the Coasts of Peru It is difficult to render the cause of this wind by reason that the South Land from whence it seemeth to blow is not yet known unto us Yet I think it probable that because that Mountains are found in it covered with perpetual Snow therefore the winds are generated from a continual resolution of them But I will not infect the mind of the Reader with these my suspicions or conjectures For peradventure the Snows which are found all the year long in the high Mountains at the Streights of Magellan are the cause of these winds but yet it may be Objected that those Mountains lie from the South towards the West declining from the South wherefore we shall leave this to a more diligent inquisition or a more full knowledge of the South Continent 3. At the Coasts of the Land of Magellan or Del Fugo about the Streight Le Mair continual or at least very frequent Westernly winds do blow and that with that force that they make the Trees to bend towards the East from their perpendicular rectitude neither is there any part of the Earth in which those Occidental winds so often blow but on the other part of the Streights Le Mair at the Coast of the South Land the South wind bloweth I can render no other cause of those Occidental winds but that I suppose them to be raised from Snow and Clouds in the South Continent which extendeth it self from the side of that Occidental Streight from the South towards the North. But these are doubtful and more diligently to be inquired after 4. On the Malabarian Coasts of India for almost the whole year the North and North-East winds blow the cause proceedeth from the resolution of the Snows of the Mountains of the Asiatick Sarmatia viz. Imaus or Caucasus from the Clouds on the other Mountains of Asia which are collected and press the subject Air. 5. In the Sea near to Guinea the North West wind is frequent and in the remote Sea the North East 6. In the middle passage between Japan and Liampo a Maritimate City of China even unto these are found Occidental winds which blow in Japan in November and December 7. At the Isle Guotou not far from the Isle Dos Cavallos in the Sea of China is a frequent South wind when that yet in the neighbouring Ocean a North wind is predominate Proposition VII Vnto these Periodical or state Winds appertain those also that are tearmed day Winds which in some Regions and at a certain time of the year blow for some hours every day Of Day Winds so called Now they are found to be twofold and that only in some Maritimate places for some blow from Mediterranean places to the Shore towards the Sea and others on the contrary from the Sea to the Shoars 1. On the Malabarian Coasts in the Summer season viz. from September to April the Terrestial winds or Terrinhos do blow from the twelfth hour of the night to the twelfth hour of the day now these winds are Eastern winds But from the twelfth hour of the day to the twelfth hour of the night the Sea wind or Viraconus to wit the West wind bloweth but this is very weak so that by its assistance the Ships can hardly arrive at the Shoar I suppose the cause of those Oriental winds from twelve at night to twelve in the day partly to be a general wind and partly Clouds on the Mountain Gatis But the cause of the Occidental Winds that blow from twelve in the day to twelve at night is the resolution of thick Clouds caused by the setting of the Sun which Clouds before by the Oriental wind were forced towards the West Out of those named Months the North wind predominateth also the East and North-East neither by reason of the often Tempests are these Terrestrial and Marine winds discerned 2. In Musulipatan a City on the Coasts of Charomandel these Terrinhos begin to blow
this his entrance doth not happen on the 21th of every Month but in some Months before and in some after Therefore when we desire to know the precise place of the Sun we must look for it in an Ephemerides or in our Almanacks The place of the Sun is found also in the wooden Horizon of the Artificial Globe for every day of the year when one may search when the Globe is at hand for it is a grand fault in a learned or knowing person to be ignorant of the Motion of the Sun seeing that from thence all the seasons of the year also the days and nights with many other things do depend of all which there is great use in the life of man CHAP. XXIII Of the Latitude of places and the Elevation of the Pole Proposition I. The Latitude of a place in the Superficies of the Earth is the distance of the same from the Aequator Of the Latitude of the Earth Now a Perpendicular Line or Arch drawn from the place given to the Aequator measureth this distance and by reason that the Meridian of every place is perpendicular to the Aequator therefore the Latitude of the place is the Arch of the Meridian of that place intercepted between the place and the Aequator The Longitude of the Earth This is termed the Latitude of the Earth whose extension is in the Superficies from one Pole to the other as the Longitude of the Earth is the extension of the same returning from the West by the East unto the West which is the same with the Aequinoctial Line Proposition II. The Elevation of the Pole of any place or above the Horizon of any place is called the Arch of the Celestial Meridian of that place intercepted between one or other Celestial Pole and the Horizon of that place Elevation of the Pole It may also be said to be the Arch of the Terrestrial Meridian intercepted between one or other of the Poles of the Earth and the Horizon For by this Mode it may be more justly desired if that the Earth cause the first motion but Astronomers for the most part apply the definition to the imaginary Celestial Pole Proposition III. To find the Latitude of a place given in the Superficies of the Globe of the Earth in degrees and minutes if that the Globe be great the same Latitude in Geographical Maps For the finding the Latitude of a place by a Globe or by Maps In a Globe let the place given be brought to the Meridian and let the degrees be numbred from the Aequator to the place they shall be the sought for Latitude of the place In Geographical Maps if the Map consists of Right lines let a Right line be drawn through the place given parallel to the Aequator except it be already drawn in the Map or let a Rule only be applied to the place so that it be parallel to the Aequator and so the bounds of this Line in the Side-lines of the Map will shew the Latitude of the place But if the Map be of Crooked lines so that no parallel can pass through by the place given one foot of the Compass shall be placed in the Pole of the Map and the other foot in the place given and in this space the Parallel of the place to be described in the Side-line again will shew the Latitude of the place if that the Parallels be described from the Pole Also the distance of the place from the Pole may be found out Proposition IV. The Place being given in the Superficies of the Globe so to constitute the Globe that the Wooden Horizon may be the Horizon of that place Let the Place given be brought to the Meridian and let 90 degrees be numbred from it towards the adjoyning Pole in the Meridian Let the term of the Numeration be placed in the Crena of the Horizon so the Wooden Horizon shall be the Horizon of the place proposed Nevertheless in the Corollary of the following Proposition we shall shew an easier method of performing the fame Proposition V. The Latitude of the Place is equal to the Altitude or Elevation of the Pole above the Horizon of that place This is shewed by the Globe thus Take a place as you please in the Superficies of the Globe then so place the Globe that the Wooden Horizon may be the Horizon of the place Now let the degrees of Latitude of the place and the Elevation of the Pole be numbred and they will be found equal The Theoried shewed by a Mathematical Demonstration See Scheme The Theorem is thus shewed by a Mathematical Demonstration Let C be the Center of the Earth L and place in the Superficies P the Poles H P L Z shall be the Meridian and H Z the Diameter of the Horizon P H the Elevation of the Pole Q T the Diameter of the Aequator or the Section of the Meridian and the Aequator and P Q shall be the Quadrant of the Meridian or of 90 degrees because that P is the Pole of the Aequator For the former reason L H shall be the Arch of 90 degrees because L is the Pole of the Horizon Therefore L H is the Arch of an equal Arch P Q and the common part L P being taken away the remainder of the Arch P H L Q will be equal The Latitude of any place being known you have also the Elevation of the Pole for the same place Now the distance of a place from the Pole and the distance from the Aequator joyned together makes 90 degrees wherefore one being known the other is also A Place being given in the Superficies of the Globe to elevate the Pole so that the elevation of the Place requireth the elevation of the Pole This is the same with what was propounded in the preceding Proposition viz. to cause that the Wooden Horizon become the Horizon of the place given First find out the Latitude of the Place and let the Latitude be numbred from the Pole in the Meridian descending downwards towards the Horizon Let the Terminus of the Numeration be constituted in the Crena of the Horizon so the Pole will be elevated as the scituation of the Place given requireth Proposition VI. A Place being given in the Superficies of the Globe or the Latitude of any Place being given to shew all the Places of the Earth which may have the same Latitude or distance from the Aequator or Elevation of the Pole Or to find all the places of the Earth which may have the distance given from the Aequator Further Rules to be observed concerning the Latitude of places In the Globe Let the Place given be brought to the Brazen Meridian or let the Latitude given be numbred from the Aequator in the Meridian towards the Pole then let a pointed Chalk be applied unto the term of the Numeration and turn the Globe round so the Chalk will describe the Periphery which shall
again opposite four days of the year in two of which the Sun shall obtain a middle distance from the place given if therefore the place given be North take two of those four days whereof one happeneth between the 21 of December and the 21 of March this shall be the entrance of the Spring the other between the 21 of September and the 21 of December this shall be the entrance of Autumn But if the place given be South from those four days you must take the day between the 21 of June and the 21 of September for the entrance of the Spring and for the beginning of Autumn that which happeneth between the 21 of March and the 21 of June The beginning of Winter shall be the 21 of June if the place be South but if North the 21 of December 3. If the place given be between the Aequator and the eighth degree of Latitude it shall have two Summers and two Spring seasons besides Autumn and Winter except peradventure we will cast away that second Spring which is intermedial between the two Summers as we said in the end of the preceeding Proposition and attribute a continual Summer to that time which if you do we must act no otherwise with the given place than in the former Mode If we will attribute two Summers and two Springs to it as the definitions of Summer and Spring accurately observed do require we shall first act by the first Mode as in the former Theorems viz. we shall find the entrance of Summer and Winter and except the four days of moderate distance found in the Table of those four those two which we advised to take in the former Mode for the entrance of the Spring and Autumn here again we shall take on the same conditions but of the other two days that only which is proximate to the day of the Summer shall be taken For this will shew the end of the Summer and the beginning of the second Spring but for the day of the second Summer another day of the three remaining shall be taken in that Area from which the beginning of the first Summer was taken viz. that which is distant by an equal number of days from the 21 of June and the 21 of Capricorn if the place be South the first day of the Summer So the days shall be found in which the Summer the Spring Autumn and the Winter do begin and end in the places of the Torrid Stone Proposition V. In the places in the temperate and frigid Zones the four seasons of the year are almost equal or consist of an equal number of days But in the places of the Torrid Zone they are unequal Neither are only the times of the divers seasons unequal but also the time of the season in the divers places of the Zones is unequal The seasons of the year in the places in the Temperate and Frigid Zone are equal 1. For the places of the temperate and frigid Zones what I have said is easily demonstrated For seeing that the Sun in every time of those four quarters of the Year runs through three Signs therefore the times of the Spring Summer Autumn and the Winter shall be equal or of equal days except some days viz. five in which the Summer and four in which the Spring of the Northern places exceed the Autumn and the Winter but in the Southern places it is otherwise for Autumn and Winter exceed the Spring and Summer which as we have shewed before proceedeth from the excentricity of the Sun 2. In places lying under the Aequator there are two Summers as also other Seasons but hoth short as also both the Springs viz. each Summer and each Spring hath only 32 days which is 64 days but the Autumns and Winters are longer viz. 55 days which is 110 days 3. In the places of the Torrid Zone by how much the less they are remote from the Aequator by so much the more they have the longer Summer the less Winter and more or less moderate Autumn and Spring for in places not remote above 10 degrees from the Aequator the Summer continueth six Months Now the greatness of the Summer Autumn Winter and Spring is known by the preceeding Proposition What hath hitherto been said is only to be understood concerning the Celestial Seasons that is those which depend on a Celestial Cause or from the access or recess of the Sun for from this alone cometh not light heat and cold as we have said in some places before therefore we shall consider the other causes in the following Propositions Proposition VI. In places of the Tornid Zone as the Sun by day is very near the Vertex so on the contrary by night he is beneath the Horizon Of the Motion of the Sun in places of the Torrid Frigid and Temperate Zones and very much removed from the Vertex of those places so that those places by night lye almost in the middle shadow of the Earth neither can the Air possibly any wayes be warmed by the Suns rayes by frequent reflection In places of the Frigid Zone as the Sun by day is not very nigh the Vertex so by night he doth not profoundly remain beneath the Horizon but for the greatest part of the night doth so turn round beneath the Horizon that many rayes from him by reflection do penetrate into the Air. In places of the Temperate Zone as the Sun by day cometh to the Vertex of those places by a moderate Vicinity so by night by an easie distance he is depressed beneath the Horizon so that some rayes at least are in the Air. To shew this by the Globe first let the Pole be elevated for some place scituated in the Torrid Zone or rather let the Pole be placed in the Horizon it self that the places of the Aequator may be in the Vertex of the Horizon or that the wooden Horizon may become the Horizon of the places of the Aequator then consider the depression of the Parallels which the Sun describeth by his circumrotation beneath the Horizon and the truth of the member of this Proposition will appear Then let the Pole be elevated for the places of the Frigid Zone or let the Poles be placed in the Vertex of the Horizon and the Parallels of the Sun beneath the Horizon from the first degree of Libra to the first of Aries being considered it will again be manifest that they are very little depressed below the Horizon And so we have shewed the second member or part of this Proposition Lastly let the Pole be elevated for the Latitude of any place scituated in the Temperate Zone and the depression of the Parallels beneath the Horizon again being considered the third part of this Proposition will be proved Proposition VII A place being given in the Globe and the day of the year to find the Longitude of the Crepusculum or Twilight in the place given at the day given That time is
termed the Longitude of the Twilight in which either before the rising of the Sun or after his setting some light is discovered in the Air. For the finding the Longitude of the Twilight by the Globe of any place and day of the year For the finding out of the quantity of this time we must suppose that which is observed by Astronomers as we have said in the nineteenth Chapter that the morning twilight beginneth for the most part if the Air be serene the Sun drawing nigh to the eighteenth degree of depression beneath the Horizon and the evening endeth when the Sun hath come to that degree of depression Let therefore the Pole be elevated for the Latitude of the place given and let the place of the Sun in the Ecliptick being found from the day of the year be sought in the Ecliptick of the Globe and let his opposite point be noted then let the Quadrant be applied to the Vertex and the point noted be found to the Horizon the Index to the twelfth hour of the Cycle then let the Globe be turned round until the noted point be elevated 18 degrees above the Horizon which is known by the help of the Quadrant for so shall the place of the Sun be depressed so many degrees beneath the Horizon and the Index in the Cycle shall shew how many hours or parts of an hour the serenity of the Air being laid down the twilight continueth that day in the place given It is convenient by three examples to learn the use of this Problem choosing a place for one of the Torrid Zone another of the Temperate and a third of the Frigid Zone Proposition VIII In places of the Torrid Zone the twilights are small very long in those of the Frigid and moderate in those of the Temperate Zone Of the difference of the Twilights in the several Zones For in places of the Aequator and those near the Crepusculum according to the Hypothesis laid down in the former Proposition is of about one hour which yet experience testifieth is only half an hour or little more because the more thick and gross Air is not so high there as is required to make the twilight to the 18 degree of depression both also because the Hypothesis of the 18 degree is to be taken concerning very small light with which the twilight beginneth such as yet is not accounted by the Vulgar for a twilight In the Frigid Zone the twilights continue for many days when the Sun remaineth beneath their Horizon In the Temperate Zone it continueth 3 4 5 and 6 hours and in some places all night and in the days of the Summer according as the places are more or less nigh the Frigid Zone All these are proved by the Mode proposed in the precedent Proposition Proposition IX A place being given in the Temperate or Frigid Zone and another in the Torrid Zone and moreover the day of the year being given to find out the hour of the place of the Torrid Zone in which hour the Sun may have the Altitude above the Horizon of that place and so strike that place with his rayes equally elevated as great as it hath in the place of the Temperate Zone in the Meridies it self Let the Pole be elevated for the Latitude of the place of the Temperate or Frigid Zone and let the place of the Sun found from the day given be brought to the Meridian and the Altitude of it reckoned for this is the Altitude of the rayes heating that place and illustrating it in the Meridies Then let the Pole be elevated for the Latitude of the place given in the Torrid Zone let the Quadrant be applied to the Vertex and let the degree of Altitude before found out be noted in it let the place of the Sun be brought to the Meridian the Index to the twelfth hour of the Cycle then let both the Globe and the Quadrant be moved till the place of the Sun agree with the noted degree of the Quadrant for so the Sun shall have the same Altitude above the Horizon of this place as it is in the Meridies of the former The Index will shew the hour demanded in the Cycle therefore this hour and the rayes of the Sun illustrating and beating of the place and Air of the Torrid Zone are as equally elevated over the Horizon of it as the rayes in the Meridies of the former place it thence followeth that the same heat will be in the Torrid Zone at the hour found out as in the place of the Temperate Zone in the Meridies except other causes intercede Some hinderances viz. first that the Sun in the foregoing days hath introduced some one or other calid Constitution to the place and the Air of the Torrid Zone and not such and so great in the places of the Temperate or Frigid Zone Then secondly that the Sun straitly ascending towards the Meridian above the Horizon of the places of the Torrid Zone sendeth forth all his rayes to the place as in one plain and to one plaga and therefore causeth greater heat than in the Temperate or Frigid Zone where the Sun moveth obliquely from the Horizon to the Meridian and sends forth his rayes from one and another plaga therefore the rayes are not contracted into a place so narrow nor do they continually heat For example let us seek in what hour of the day in places being under the very Aequator on the day of the Aequinoctials the Sun will have that Altitude as he hath at Amstelodame on the Meridies of the same day Proposition X. How the causes of light heat and of the seasons which we have reckoned up in the first Proposition of this Chapter have themselves in the Torrid Zone and how to shew them Of the seasont light and heat in the Torrid Zone and how they are shewed First every day of the year ascendeth directly above the Horizon of those places especially of the Aequator towards the Meridian and the Vertex of them and therefore about the ninth hour of Forenoon he heginneth to ejaculate to those places rayes about 40 degrees declining from the perpendicular rayes which rectitude of the rayes or perpendicular of the rayes augmenteth towards the Meridies and again decreasing continueth to the fourth hour after the Meridies or Noonstead where the Sun departing towards the Occidental Horizon beginneth to send forth his rayes more obliquely to those places therefore the greatest heat in those places ought to be from about the ninth hour before Noon even to the third or fourth after Noon if that this cause be only regarded but yet because the Sun now departs from the Vertex of those places and sometimes approacheth nearer therefore the Winter of every one of those places shall be when the Sun goeth from the points of the Ecliptick much remote from those places that is from the first degree of Cancer or Capricorn towards the points having a middle
distance from the place assumed the Spring when he goeth from a point of moderate distance towards the very Vertex of the Pole or to the point of the Ecliptick which is Vertical to the place or to the Parallel of the place the Summer where the Sun goeth from this other point of middle distance to a point of greatest distance that is the first degree of Capricorn or Cancer 2. In the places of the Aequator it self the Sun no day of the year remaineth above the Horizon more or less hours than twelve and so many beneath the Horizon In other places of the Torrid Zone one hour or an hour and an half at the most viz. in the extream places of this Zone about the Tropicks of Cancer and Capricorn when the day is at the longest the Sun remaineth above the Horizon twelve hours and in the shortest day about eleven hours and in the intermedial days that time of the stay of the Sum above and beneath the Horizon doth not much differ from twelve hours And therefore this is the cause that the nights are not without cold and the heat of the day continueth not long about the eveningtide 3. In the night time the Sun is profoundly depressed beneath the Horizon for that he illustrateth the Air with none of his rayes nay not reflex This is the cause that most dark nights are there and the cold of the night is augmented the Air is condensed and contracteth it self and being cold it descends towards the earth by its own ponderosity Moreover in a very short time about the space of half an hour before the rising of the Sun and after his setting those places have the light and heat of the Twilight 4 The Moon almost after the same manner as the Sun ascends directly from the Horizon towards the Meridian of those places yet a little more obliquely because it departeth from the Ecliptick and therefore towards the Torrid Zone about five degrees and it remaineth after the same manner as the Sun a little above twelve hours above the Horizon and is depressed beneath it almost so many hours and that profoundly as we have spoken of the Sun Therefore with her direct rayes or those near to the perpendicular she will augment the warmness of the night especially when she is Vertical to any place and diminish it by her recess but by reason of her short stay above the Horizon the effect of it is little discerned in any place except when it is Vertical to it 5. All the Stars arise and set in places nigh the Aequator but those Stars which are near the Pole in places more remote from the Aequator do not arise and those are but very few and therefore they can cause little heat and light and that also insensible in the Air. 6. In many places of the Torrid Zone as in India and its Isles in the Tongue of Africa and in Mexico the earth is Sulphureous which sendeth forth more calid vapours whence it communicateth a certain heat to the Air and a peculiar property In some places it is sandy as in the North part of Africa lying in the Torrid Zone in part of Lybia and the Land of the Negroes in many places of Arabia in Peru and in the places between Peru and Brazilia whence in these places a very great heat is raised by the Sun because the particles of the Sand do very long retain the heat received from the Sun and soon communicate the same to the vicine Air. In other places the Rivers are many and in those Sandy ones few there are many in Abyssine in Guiney Congo India and in Brazilia hence humid vapours are raised which do very much blunt the force of the Suns rayes and render his heat more tolerable 7. The most places of the Torrid Zone have the Sea adjacent as India and its Isles the Tongue of Africa Guiney Brazilia Peru Mexico some places of the Torrid Zone are Mediterranean as the more inward Africa the Regions between Peru and Brazilia whence it cometh to pass that in those places the heat and drought is greater and in some or most of them the Air is more moist and less fervent then can be caused by the Sun except other causes happen 8. Most of the Regions of the Torrid Zone seeing that they are almost encompassed by the Sea have in the middle places more or lesser ridges of exceeding high Mountains as India and its Isles the Tongue of Africa and Peru These rows of Mountains do very much vary the light heat and rayes of those places somewhere they hinder the Oriental rayes of the Sun otherwhere the Occidental Moreover the humid vapours condensed in the Air are moved to the Vertices of these Mountains as we have shewed in the twentieth Chapter whence rains and clouds proceed by which the heat and light of the Sun is very much obstructed and the Celestial cause of the Seasons is disturbed There are few of the places of the Torrid Zone which want those ridges as the inward Africa Mexico and the like 9. The effects of the Winds in the Torrid Zone are various and notable for a general wind blowing from the side Plagas of the East or from the East continually towards the West refrigerateth the Maritim places which regard the East as Brazilia the Oriental Coast of Africa but not so to those towards the West as Guiney Congo Angola and the Coasts of Peru. Some winds are appropriated as the South in Peru which winds dispel vapours towards the Plaga in which they blow Some are fixed winds of which we have largely treated in the one and twentieth Chapter Now these winds do very much disturb the Celestial cause of the Seasons for they are almost as equally constant and observe order as the motions of the Heaven it self They bring down the Air compel the vapours towards the tops of the Mountains and by other Modes alter the Seasons Ten Anniversary rains are in many places of the Torrid Zone and take away the Celestial cause seeing that they are as equally constant as the motion of the Sun it self For those err who suppose that this our Sublunary Orb observeth all with inconstancy and without order and that the Celestial only have a constant motion Seeing that the causes hitherto spoken of are so various to be able to cause the heat and the properties of the Seasons and in one place some are from other causes in another others are of force or concur in divers Seasons of the year or mutually impede one another hence we discover why the cause and condition of the Seasons of the Torrid Zone is so various Proposition XI How the Spring Summer Autumn and Winter Terrestrial do behave themselves and in what Months of the year they commence in the divers places of the Torrid Zone Of the beginning of the Seasons in places in the Torrid Zone We have said before and especially in the second Proposition that
the Seasons in many places of the Torrid Zone are contrary to the motion of the Sun viz. that it is Summer there when the Sun is most distant and Winter when he is nearest yea vertical to the Vertex Therefore we have distinguished the Seasons into Celestial and Terrestrial We have shewed heretofore and that in the third and fourth Proposition how any place being given in that Torrid Zone the Months of the year are to be found in which the place ought to have Summer Spring Autumn and Winter if we have regard to the access and recess of the Sun that is we have taught to design the times of the Celestial Seasons But seeing that in many places of this Zone the forementioned Seasons do not happen in those Months but in others and that in divers places in a different time therefore the times of the Terrestrial seasons must be taken not from the Heaven or a certain method but from the experience made in those places and as much as possible the cause of every one of them why they repugn the Celestial cause must be explicated viz. from those 10 causes which we have laid down in the first Proposition 〈◊〉 this therefore ought first to be known that the Winter in the Torrid Zone doth rage with cold and frost but rather with raines and is to be defined by a lesser heat then that in the time of the Summer Farther in many places of the Torrid Zone they reckon not four but two seasons of the year viz. Summer and Winter and these are not distinguished by heat and cold but chiefly by siccity and humidiy for in the Winter they have often greater heat than in their Summer with a shortness of respiration because the rain and the Clouds press the Calid Air downwards But the Spring and Autumn are not to be found by so manifest signs or differences We shall begin our Narration from that part of Africa which lyeth under the Torrid Zone and proceeding towards the East with Brazilia we shall finish the whole Torrid Zone seated in the West measured by us The Regions of the Occidental shore of Africa from the Tropick of Cancer to Cape verd that is distant 14 degrees from the Aequator towards the North are all abounding both with Corn and variety of Fruit there are also heards of Cattell and flocks of Sheep in great abundance The Inhabitants are of a great strength the heat of the Air a little exceedeth Mediocrity so that the Inhabitants go naked except the Noble and those that are rich whose clothing is a Linnen Cloth The cause of this fertility and temperate Air contrary to the custom of the Torrid Zone is First many Rivers of which the chief are Senega and Gambea before they discharge themselves into the neighbouring Sea they water those Regions and render the Air more humid and frigid Secondly the vicinity of the Sea which affordeth humid vapours and somewhat cold Winds How the Seasons of the year have themselves in this place and what months of the year Summer and Winter happen and are vigorous I have not found noted by Writers which is to be imputed to their negligence and sloth Yet in one Itinerary I have read that in one of the Islands which lye not far from the Promontary of Cape verd by name Salinae or the Hesperides in one of them I say called St. Vincents the Latitude is 16 degrees the watery months that is Winter are August September November December January even to February This time almost agreeth with the Celestial cause for in the months of May June and July because the Sun is very near or else vertical to that place therefore it maketh the Celestial Summer and here the Terrestrial agreeth with it for then they have a greater heat and dry Air without Rain In the months of February March and April is their Spring be-because the Sun is moved from a moderate distance to a lesser therefore they are then without rains and have a moderate heat The months of August September and October are to be ascribed to Autumn by reason of the rains although it ought to begin latter because the Sun in August hath not yet returned from his least distance to his mean Lastly the months November December and January are Winter because the Sun hath then the greatest distance from their Vertex and then they find more and longer continuing rains with some cold but this is not to be observed every year though most years But how the seasons are in the Continent of Africa is not related except that concerning the shore of Sierra Leon it is contrary as we shall now speak 2. Now succed the Regions of the Coast of Africa which look towards the South and extend themselves from the Promontory of Cape Verd to the curvature or bending part of Africa that is from the West to East These Regions are termed by one name Guiny although others attribute this term only to one part Now they lie in the Torrid Northern Zone 3.4 and more degrees from the Aequator In these Regions there is a continual heat of the Air without any intervening Cold yet they attribute some months to the Summer and some to the Winter I think the same must be understood of the former Western Coast for in the Regions of the Shore called Sierra Leon which is removed above 9 degrees from the Aequator towards the North as also in many Tracts of Guiny they ascribe the months March April May June and July to Winter especially the three first by reason that on these months there fall frequent and almost continual rains hot or warm great Thunders and Lightnings and so great Storms rage without violent Winds that none can easily conceive them See Chap. 21. who hath not had experience of them How they rage I have already spoken also in these months the Fields lie Barren but when these Stormy months are expired then they dig up the dry Earth which hath sucked up the great Rains in the said wet months and mix stamped and bruised Coals instead of manuring and so for the space of 10 days suffer the Earth to putrify and then they sow their Seed There is here so great an heat of the Air joyned with humidity by reason of the propinquity of the Sea that the Fish which are taken stink if kept undressed half a day Therefore in these places the Winter shall be in April May and June when the Storms and Rains rage The Spring in July August and September the Summer in October November and December and the Autumn in January February and March where the Rains and Storms do begin Now all these times of the Seasons in those places are contrary to the Celestial cause or motion of the Sun for in the months of May June and July great heat ought to be there because then the Sun is then vertical or near the Vertex which the heat or warmness of the Rain also
the Brazilians in the months of October and February and striketh the Earth with reflex raies at most acute Angles Which diversity of these Regions promiseth the Inhabitants perpetual health by reason of the often calms and the Air quelling all noxious heats Hence it is easy to dollect that the seasons of the year do not so much depend immediately on the Sun and his motion as on the species of the Winds the diversity of aspects of the Stars the quality and peculiar scituation of the Region Moreover in these Mediterranean Regions towards the West the nights are more cold than in the Maritim so much some times that the Frost seizeth on the very hairs of the Peoples In the same months from the East about the Ocean is Summer and Siccity No Islands are opposite to Brazilia from the West beyond the ridges of the Mountains and the Marshes of Brazilia is the Winter Fogs and Rain Oftentimes the Heavens may be seen covered with vast Clouds from the East towards the West but those again very thin except in the days of the Rain the Sun both rising and setting may be beheld with fixed eyes for there is a wonderful serenity on every side especially towards the evening which never afordeth any Vapours or Clouds to the succeeding Moon but renders the night so clear that the old and new Moon may be seen in one and the same day and letters may be well read it the quarter Moon The Aether in respect of the diversity of the Planets other inseriour causes acceding receiveth its distemperature for the Heaven about evening is bright with Lightning without Thunder in the most dry and serene season The drops of Rain are very great and fall with great violence which is wont to be preceeded by a suffocative warmness The Dew here is more fruitful than that of Europe being impregnated with much Winter and therefore is more penetrating and thin especially in Summer which is manifest in all Mettals and in Iron especially which it easily eateth up without the assistance of any Clouds The Meadows and open Fields do less wax green in the Summer but more especially in the Pluvial months although the Earth then seemed somewhat more sad to the Inhabitants and the places unfit for Tillage afford Pasture See Piso All the Lands of Brazilia arise into moderate and pleasant Hills there are no Mountains of any great hight in the Coasts but yet some are discovered afar off in the Solitudes among the barren hills yet not every where but with some intervals of Miles the Valleys are interposed every one irrigated with some small Rivers and for that reason are not only fertil in the pluvial months but also in those of the Summer The Hills in the Summer months are steril by reason of the heat of the Sun so that they wither and Grass doth not only die on them but sometimes the Trees also It very seldom raineth throughout the whole day and night and for some continual days very seldom without intermission the Pluvial months do a little differ In the year 1640. as Marriners have observed there were 7 Pluvial months viz February March April May June July and August But most and almost continually from April May and June In the year 1642. the most Pluvial months six viz. March April May June July and August But the account of the other years was not much different Now these observations are to be taken only for one place and not for all the places in Brazilia Hence it is manifest that the Summer and Winter of Brazilia answereth to the Celestial account seeing that in the greatest distance of the Sun they have Rain and in the least and moderate towards the South they have heat Yet there are not a few irregularities the cause of which are to be sought from the scituation of the Winds and Earth The six rainy months are May June July August September and October 18. This is enough for the Southern America in the Northern it is otherwise For in the Province of Nicaragua it raineth for six months and the other six months it is Summer and dry weather so that passengers may travel in the night This now is contrary to the Celestial course for in the wet months for in May June and so on to November the Sun is vertical or near the Vertex unto these places so that then they should have Summer and Siccity and not Rain In November and December it is very distant therefore they should there have Rain Thus have we declared the Seasons of the chief places of the whole Torrid Zone from which being compared one with another we collect 1. That in some places the cold is scarse sensible in some part of the year and therefore the Winter is rather to be defined by the Rains than by cold in those places 2. In some places the cold is sufficiently sensible 3. In the night time especially in the last quarter the Air is discovered to be very cold by reason of the depression of the Sun beneath the Horizon 4. That it is not the least cause of the tolerable heat and that those Regions are inhabited viz. that no days are there long but almost equal to the night for if the days were as long there the Sun remaining above the Horizon as in the places of the Temperate and Frigid Zones then doubtless they would be uninhabited 5. That the Winds do much diminish the heat of the Sun 6. That places which ly in one and the same Climate have the Summer and Winter in divers times although they be very near to one another 7. That those places which have Siccity and Humidity contrary to the access and recess of the Sun are so scituated that on the East they have Ridges of Mountains and that they regard the West Peru excepted 8. That the Seasons observe no certain rule in the places of the Torrid Zone 9. That although most of the Inhabitants divide the year into two Seasons which is likewise observed by many Writers to wit a Pluvial and Dry Season yet it may aptly be divided into four so that they may not only have a Summer and a Winter but also a Spring and an Autumn For as in our parts the Spring approacheth near the nature of Summer and the Autumn of Winter so also the dry places of the Torrid Zone may be divided 10. And lastly in some places there is a continual Harvest in some only in two parts of the year and in others only in one part of the year Proposition XII To shew how the four Seasons of the year are made c. in the places of the Temperate Zones Of the seasons of the year in places lying in the Temperate Zones 1. In these places that cause which we have placed in the first place amongst the causes of the Seasons in the first Proposition of this Chapter is so potent in respect of the other causes that that
above almost maketh up and moderateth them To wit in the Regions of the Northern Temperate Zone it is Spring and Summer the Sun going from Aries by Cancer to Libra because then he is more near them Then the Sun going from Libra through Capricorn to Aries it is Autumn and Winter But in the Southern Temperate Zone the matter is contrary neither can those other causes altogether disable the force of this first and induce a new course of the seasons and be able to alter the times as in the Torrid Zone 2. Yet those Seasons of divers places vary so that in one place there may be more Heat or Cold or Rain than in another although the places lie in the same Climate but yet they cause not the Winter to be changed into Summer or Summer into Winter A Rocky Marshish and Maritim Land findeth somewhat another degree of heat or cold than Vallies or a Chalk and Maritim Land 3. The places in the Tropicks for the most part in the Summer have an excessive heat others a Pluvial Season so that they almost approach to the nature of the places of the Torrid Zone So in the part of the Kingdom of Guzarat lying without the Tropick at the same time the wet and dry months are observed which in the part lying beyond the Aequator the Summer is changed into a Pluvial Season yet then there is greater heat than the dry part of the year where they have a moderate cold and in truth in the places of the Temperate Zones we judg the Summer and Winter not from the drought and rains but from the heat and cold Now in the Coasts of Persia and Ormus there is so great heat without Rains in the Summer by reason of the vicinity of the Sun rhat both the Men and their Wives ly in Cisterns full of Water The like heat is in Arabia The Regions of Africa on the Mediterranean Sea are called the coast of Barbary Throughout all Barbary the middle of October being past Showers and Cold begin to increase and in December and January the cold is perceived more intense and that only in the morning and withal so remiss that the Fire is not desired February taketh away the greatest part of the cold from the Winter but yet it is so inconstant that sometimes 5 or 6 times in one day the Air changeth In the month of March the North and West Winds blow violently and cause whole trees to be vested with blossoms April giveth form almost to all Fruits so that the entrance of May and the end of April is wont naturally to produce Cherries In the middle of May they gather Figs and in the middle of June in some places are ripe Grapes Of the seasons of the year of Barbary the Figs or Autumn are gathered in August and there is no greater plenty of Figs and Pears than in September There is not so great intemperies of the year in those places but that the three months of the Spring are always temperate The entrance of the Spring that is the Terrestrial not the Celestial is as they reckon on the 15th of February and the end the 18th of May in all which time the Air is most grateful to them If from the 25th of April to the 5 of May they have no Rain they esteem the same as ominous They count their Summer even to the 16th of August at which time they have a very hot and serene Air. Their Autumn from the 17 of August to the 16 of November and they have that for two months to wit August and September yet not great That which is included between the 15 of August and the 15 of September was wont to be termed by the Antients the Furnace of the whole year and that because it produced Figs Pears and that kind of Fruit to maturity From the 15 of November they reckoned their Winter which they extend to the 14 of February At the entrance of this they begin to till their Land which is the plain but the mountainous in the month of October The Africans have a certain perswasion that the year hath 40 very hot days and on the other side so many cold The Opinion of the Arabians days which they say begin from the 12 of December They begin the Aequinoxes on the 16 of March and on the 16 of September Their Solstices on the 16 of June and the 16 of December The end of their Autumn all their Winter and a good part of their Spring is full of violent Winds accompanied with Hail Lightnings and dreadful Thunders neither is there wanting in many places of Barbary an abundance of Snow In Mount Atlas 7 degrees distant from the Tropick of Cancer they divide the year only into two parts for from October even to April they have a continual Winter and from April again to October they have Summer In this there is no day in which the Mountains tops glitter with Snow The seasons of Numidia In Numidia the parts of the year swiftly pass away for in May they reap their Corn in October they gather their Dates but from the middle of September to January a violent Frost continueth October abstaining from Rains all hopes of Sowing is taken from the Husbandman the same hapneth if that April produceth not Pluvial Water Leo Astricanus remembreth many Mountains of Snow in Africa not far from the Tropick of Cancer Of China The North part of China although no more remote from the Aequator than Italy yet it hath a cold more sharp for great Rivers and Lakes are congealed up with Frost the cause of which is not yet sufficiently known except we should refer it to the Snowy Mountains of Tartaria not far remote to the avoyding of which cold they abound with the Skins of Foxes and Scythilian Rats New England New England although it lie in 42 degrees of North Latitude and therefore no more removed from the Aequator than Italy yet in the month of June when Sir Francis Drake was there the Air was so vehement cold that he was compelled to sayl back to the South for the Mountains were then covered with Snow The cause is the Frigid temperature of the Earth being Stony The seasons of Aegypt In Aegypt which is bounded with the Tropick of Cancer the Spring and Temperate Season of the year is observed about January and February The Summer beginneth with March and April and continueth June July and August The Autumn possesseth September and October The Winter hath November and December About the beginning of April they Reap their Corn and presently thresh it After the 20 of May not an Ear of Corn is to be seen in the Fields no Fruits on the trees On the Ides of June the inundation of the Nilus beginneth The seasons in the streights of Magellan In the Streights of Magellan and the adjacent Regions although they be no more distant from the Aequator than our parts
are under the 52 degree of South Latitude yet they have no very hot Summer So that the Hollanders in the month of January when there should be an hot Summer found a great glade of Ice in the Creek of one of their Seas In the Mountains of the adjacent Coasts Snow is discovered all the Summer long and it is observed that in almost all the Regions of the South Temperate Zone they have a Cold far more intense in Winter and a violency of Rain and a less heat in Summer than the parts of our Northern Temperate Zone Whether this be the cause that the Sun makes a longer stay and the slower progress in the Semicircle of the Northern Zodiac than in the Southern is to be questioned In the Neighbouring Province of Peru which they call La Valla Imperial in the Province of Potosi they find so great a Cold that for four miles circumference there groweth nothing The season of Chili In the Kingdom of Chili which extendeth it self from 30 degrees of South Latitude to 50 degrees the Spring beginneth in the months of August sooner than the Celestial Account admitteth and endeth in the middle of November And from the middle of November Summer beginneth even to the middle of February from whence Autumn leadeth on to the middle of May which the Winter succedeth which is very violent and dispoileth the Trees of their Blossoms and scattereth a deep Snow with a vehement Frost which yet is discovered by the Sun except which is very seldom that the Sun appeareth not but the Snow rarely falleth in the Vallies for although it falls in great abundance and is heaped up so high that it ascends the tops of Mountains and is heaped together in the vacuity of the Mountains as in so many wells and indure almost the whole year yet being there dissolved they flow into the Rivers and Torrents which run through the Vallies with a great force even to the Sea to the great enrichment of the Grounds But although here it Snow not except rarely in the Plains yet it maketh so excessive a Frost that the like is scarcely felt in many parts of Europe which happeneth partly from the Altitude of the Pole partly from the propinquity of the Mountains from which descend so subtile and penetrating Winds that sometimes they are unsufferable whence it cometh to pass that the Maritim parts are more temperate He that is Studious may collect other differences of Region under the same Climate or in the vicine Climates from Writers for example that in England the Air is not so cold as in Holland so that they pen not up their Heards in the Winter Betwen Siberia and Tartaria in a place seated not far from the Frigid Zone in the end of our Temperate are said to be plesant Fields and rich Pastures almost no cold seeing that they scarce feel Winter where by the command of the Duke of Moscovia the City Tooru is built which is at this day so much encreased that it is able to repell the Assaults of the Tartars The Island of Japan In Japan the Winter is Cold Snowy Ruiny when yet other Regions of Europe and Asia lying under the same Climate have far lesser Winter the cause is because that Japan consists of many Islands disjoyned by a small Euripus and that it also lyeth in the middle of the Ocean America very hot in the Summer In Armenia and the adjoyning places there is great heat in Summer because it lieth amongst Mountains here and there mixed with Fields hence the more rich in some places in Summer remove to the tops of the Mountains and remain there for some months but the meaner sort in the day time defend themselves in the Mountains from the near and about eventide do descend to the lower ground Proposition XIII To declare how in places in the Frigid Zone the four Seasons of the year have themselves with the light Of the places in the Frigid Zone The cause of those Seasons with the light proposed in the entrance of this Chapter thus stands in the Frigid Zone 1. The Center of the Sun for some days or months as the place is either nearer or remote from the Pole doth not arise above the Horizon and for so many days setteth not 2. In those days when he is above the Horizon he only illustrateth those places with his oblique raies because he is not much elevated above the Horizon but moveth round it because those places are over much removed from the way of the Sun 3. The Sun is not deeply depressed beneath the Horizon yea in places near the Polary Circle or Artick Pole although the Center of the Sun doth not arise yet part of his Skirt ariseth and is beheld for some days above the Horizon before the Center it self ariseth by reason that the half Sun possesseth 15 minutes in the Heaven For example let us take those places whose distance is from the Aequator 67 degrees towards the Pole Artick let the Pole be elevated according to this Latitude and in the Meridian Crena of the Horizon you shall see that the degrees of the Ecliptick do not arise from the 19th degree of Sagittarius to the 11 of Capricorn that is the Center of the Sun being in that Arch doth not arise for 24 days viz. from the 10th of December to the 4th of January and yet part of the Skirt of the Sun for that whole time shall be above the Horizon to wit on the 21 of December the Limbus glittereth the Horizon but on the 10 of December as also on the first of January half the Sun shall be above the Horizon and half beneath because the Center is then in the Horizon But the whole Sun shall be elevated above the Horizon when the Center of the Sun shall hold the 14 degree of Capricorn that is about the 4 day of January also the whole shall afterwards appear when his Center shall possess the 16 degree of Sagittarius that is about the 7 of December But in places where the elevation of the Pole is 70 or 75 degrees there this difference between the Oriental Limbus and the Oriental Center is very little so that the Limbus or Skirt scarcely anticipateth the rise of the Center of the Sun one day or half a day From this smallest of depression it followeth also that they enjoy the light of the Crepusculum many hours before the rising and after the setting of the Sun and although the Sun ariseth not yet in all or many of the hours of the day they have light in the Air. There is also another cause See Chap. 19. which maketh the Sun first to be seen before that he is elevated above the Horizon For thence it cometh to pass that not only the Sun is seen before he is elevated above the Horizon and before the Raies can directly come from him to the Eye but also that the light of the Twilight sooner illustrateth
place to wit the 31 of December if in that place it be the first of January and Saturday or the last day of the Week when in this place it shall be Sunday or the first day of a new Week And if they have sayled round the Earth twice thrice or soin times they shall also reckon so many days less This was a matter of wonder and admiration some Ages ago to Mâ—â—â—â— and others but the frequency of this Experiment hath lessehen the admination and hath administred occasion to Mathemnâ—â—â— to 〈…〉 the cause Neither is it difficult to explain the same so that the motion of the Sun and the Meridian of the places of the Earth be well apprehended and a certain day of the year be proposed â— for it dependetiâ—â— the Diurual cirâ—â—â—voluationâ— of the Sun not from his proper nation as some have thought which we may begin from any Circle but for our more easie understanding it is very convenient to begin from the Meridies that the day may be the time from one Meridies to the following Meridies or Noon or whilst the Sun returneth from the Semicircle of one Meridiany to the same Semicircle Therefore because that those who Sayl towards the East or Rising come to those places where the Sun first riseth and maketh his Meridian than in the place from whence they departed thence it cometh to pass that the Sun being in the Meridian of the place to which they have arrived they begin to reckon a new day For Example the second day of January where in the place of their departure hitherto they have numbred the first day of January if that they set Sayl on the same and the difference shall be one or two hours This anticipation daily increaseth until they come towards the East so that it shall make the hours of half a day when they come to the opposite Semicircle of the Meridian for here they shall have the Meridies of a new day when in the place of their setting forth it shall be the Midnight of the preceding day And where they shall come to the Meridian 1â— degrees more remote being in that they shall have the Meridies 13 hours sooner than in the place of their setting forth and when again they shall come to a Meridian more remote 15 degrees there they shall have the Minidies â—4 hours sooner than in the place of their setting forth And so moreover as they shall come to the Meridians or places more remote 15 degrees they shall have the Meridies 15 16 17 hours sooner and shall begin to account a new day sooner than in their place of their setting forth so that when at length they shall have returned to the place they shall then number the Meridies of a new day sooner by 24 hours where in the place also the Meridies is which yet may answer in number to the Meridies which the Mariners had the former day But it is contrary with those who Sayl towards the West when they return to the place from whence they set forth for by how much the more they recede from this place by so much the more they shall have the Sun later in the Meridies because they are in a more remote Meridian and therefore do later begin the account of their new day than in the place whence they set forth So that this Proposition taketh away an whole day in the return Corollary 1. Corollaries If that two at the same time set sorth from any place of the Earth the one towards the East the other towards the West and they shall return both together to the same place the whole Earth being Sayled about he that took his Journey towards the East shall reckon two days more than he which took it towards the West And if they have Sayled the Earth about twice they shall reckon a days more if thrice 6 days more c. but the days of these are longer of those shorter Corollary 2. The same will happen if that in any place of the Earth any two meet one the other and from hence first and then often afterwards was this apparently discovered for when Ferdinando Magellanes by a direct course into the West had entred the Indies by the Streights denominated from him it was found out by the Mariners which there met with other Europeans brought towards the East by an ordinary Journey that the Kaleudar or the Numeration of the days differed an whole day The same hath been observed by all which have Sayled round the Earth when they have come into the Indies Corillary 10. This also is the cause that in two near places the account of a different day 〈◊〉 observed viz. in the Philippine Isles and in the City of Marow on the Chast of China The day in Macoa not the same as in the Philippine Isles although they lie under the same Meridian yet they reckon the days of the Kalendar sooner in Macoa than in the Philippine Isles and that by the anticipation of one day so that it is Sunday in Moacoa when but Saturday in the Philippine Isles The cause of this diversity is this that the Rortuâ—â—â— possessing the City of Macoa came thither from Europe towards the East by asseccourse out of India but the Spaniard which possess the Philippine Isles came thither from Europe towards the West by a set course from America Therefore it is in ferred from the preceding Corollary because here in Mâ—â—a and the Philippines they almost meet 〈◊〉 â—ome into the same Meridian that they should â—â—ceâ—d by one day the days of the other CHAP. XXX Of the various Rising Setting Altitude of the Sun and other Appearances in the divers parts of the Earth Proposition 1. To place or hang a Terrestrial Globe so that when the Sun shineth those parts of the Globe may be illuminated which the Sun enlighteneth in the Earth at any time and that it also may appear unto what People the Sun riseth and to whom it setteth to whom it makes the Meridies and to whom it is altogether absconded to what place it is vertical also to find the place of the Sun in the Ecliptick and the day of the year also the hour of the place The motion of the Sun shewed by the Globe LET the place in which the Globe is placed be noted on the Globe and brought to the Meridian and let a mark be made with a Chalk on that point of the Meridian Therefore if the Globe be to be hung by a Cord the Cord must be tied to the point of the Meridian But if that it must be placed firmly in any place an Iron piâ— must be brought through the Center of the Globe even to the opposite point and this Iron pin must be closely fixed to the Horizontal plain that it may remain immovable The Globe must be disposed according to the four quarters of the World viz that the North part of the Globe may regard the North part of the Earth
hath observed the beginning also in his Maps But seeing that there are other places in the Earth where the Magnetick Needle doth the same neither doth it do it in all the Meridian of this place therefore other Geographers have not thought that Cause sufficient and some have placed the first Meridian in the Brazilian Shore the more Modern especially the Hollanders having gone back to the Fortunate or Canary Isles have chose in one of them called Teneriffe The Longitude by the Hollanders begun at Teneriffe a Mountain which is thought to be the highest in the whole World called El pico de Teneriffe and from the Meridian of this Mountain they judge the Numeration of the Longitude of places ought to be begun because they think fit that a Famous and durable place for all Ages may be best chosen for this purpose concerning which in Ages to come Posterity should not easily doubt and moreover that that assignation of Ptolomy which hath been observed for so many Ages should not be deserted on a trivial account The Longitude by the French begun at the Isle of Fer in the Canaries The French at this day from the Year 1634 observe that for the first Meridian which passeth through the Occidental part of the Isle of Fer one of the Canary Isles Which beginning Lewis the XIII King of France commanded his Mariners and Geographers to observe Astronomers also take divers places for the first Meridian For those who follow Tycho are wont to place it at Vranoburge scituate in an Island in the Danish Sea and at this place to compute their Celestial motions and thence to other places Others make other beginnings as they follow this or that Author of the Ephemerides The Longitude likewise begun in sundry places by Astronomers For the Writers of Ephemerides as also the computers of the Planetary Tables are wont to calculate the motions and appearances of the Planets to the Meridians of their own Country as Origanus to Frankford Maginus to Venice because that Padua is an Academy of the Venetians Ecstadius to Stetin Lansbergius to Goesa in Zeland Reinholdus to Regium a Mountain of Borusia But to speak freely what I think all this dissent of Authours proceedeth from no sufficient Cause so that those who first removed the Ptolomaick-beginning out of its place are blame worthy But it is all one whatsoever beginning of this account is taken in the Earth whether the place be noted or the ultimate to the Occident or Orient so that the scituation and distance of the other places be accurately known at it Yet this variety of the beginning of the Meridians expresseth the reading of Geographical Writers with many confusions and difficulties Yet because the knowledge of the Declination of the Loadstone is of great utility and that that Declination encreaseth even to a certain Meridian and then again decreaseth I think it not altogether inconvenient for the observation of the Declination of the Load stone and the more easy comparison of the increase or decrease of it if that that be taken for the first Meridian in which the Magnetick Needle maketh little or no Declination so that such a Meridian might be given viz. in all the places of which or the most at least the Magnetick Needle would do it But seeing that the Hollanders at this time take the Mountain of Teneriffe for the beginning of their Longitude and that they Sail at this day into all parts of the World therefore it is convenient to acknowledge the same beginning with them for the better understanding of the Diaries that they are wont to publish Now you must know that the Reading of Authours where mention is made of the Longitude of a Place or of a certain numbred Meridian that then you ought to consider what beginning of Longitude that Author determineth or through what place he bringeth his first Meridian as you are to observe that the Maps which are used in the Second Part of this Book being the Geographical Description of the parts and places of the Four Parts of the World the Longitude I say of those places are taken according to the French Account beginning at the Isle of of Fer being one of the Canary Isles they being Composed by Monsieur Sanson Geographer to the King of France and whose Method is not convenient to be allow'd for to that the Longitude of other places must be brought and inquired of Proposition III. The Latitude and Longitude of any place or the distance of any place from the Aequator or a certain Meridian being given which is found in the Maps or Globes to exhibit the scituation and Point of that place on the Maps or Globes Or thus If that we be in any place of the World either at Land or Sea which is unknown unto us or whose scituation we are ignorant of to the other parts of the Earth so that if we can find the Latitude and Longitude of this place thence to find out the scituation of this place in the Earth and its distance from other places This is that Problem for which a Method is sought so anxiously and with so great industry by which the Longitude of a place at any time in which we are in it may be found and therefore although we should first treat of the invention of this Longitude yet I thought it fitter to premise the Problem it self for which that Longitude is sought for and that for this reason seeing that we must treat largely of this Longitude least you should be cloyed not knowing to what end so great a labour is undertaken and so many various ways tryed The Longitude and Latitude of places of great importance to Mariners to know For Mariners having Sailed far from the Shoar and being in the Ocean because they cannot accurately know the way of their Voyage made by reason of the divers hindrances and note it in their Maps are often ignorant in what place of the Earth they are what scituation this place hath to those places whither they go or what places are to be gone to if that they will avoid danger and therefore also they are ignorant unto what quarter they must direct their course Unto the knowledge of which there is no more ready a Method than for to certainly find the Longitude and Latitude of the place that is its distance from the Aequator and some certain Meridian of the Earth And Mathematicians have taught them with no great difficulty by divers ways to find out the Latitude of a place in the day by the Sun and in the night by the Stars Such Modes we have shewed before for those who think to know it only by the help of the Compass sufficiently discovered their ignorance from which Latitude being found they know in what Parallel of the Earth they are which indeed is no small part of the demand But seeing that the Points of the Parallel are infinite they do not yet know from the
place and scituation and therefore very unlike Figures arise thence in the Table thence it cometh to pass that according to the various scituation of the Eye which we attribute to it without the Earth or without that part which it ought to represent there ariseth a various representation of that Superficies on the Table For as there existeth another sort of Frontispiece of the walls of an house when the Eye may behold it from a scituation directly opposite another from an oblique scituation another from an upper place another from a long place and so changing according to the various scituation of the Eye which Tutors may explain by Diagrams so there ariseth a different position of the parts of the Earth to be represented on the Table if that the Eye be so constituted or conceived in the Air in such a scituation that it may hang over the Aequator of the Earth and otherwise if that it be supposed to exist in the pretended Axis of the Earth or in the Semi-Axis of the Hemisphere and otherwise if it be conceived to be eminent over any other place of the Earth Thence it cometh to pass that both the Aequator and the Parallels as well as the Meridians obtain various representations because the Rays drawn from them existing in the Earth to the Eye perforate the Tables in divers points endued with a various scituation which the Readers may easily understand The Direction of a Tutor very profitable if that they have the living information and direction of a Tutor The other which I esteem fit for the Readers consideration in this Method for his better understanding is concerning the cause of the variety in the Magnitude of Tables and representations for we can shew the same Superficies of the Earth as also of all the Bodies of the World as Temples Houses and the like on a great or small Table The Cause is twofold first by how much the Eye is placed more remote from the Earth or any Object by so much the representation receiveth the lesser Magnitude ziz the scituation of the Table or Glass so remaining 2. How much the Table or Glass in which the representation should be made by the perforation of the Rays is nearer moved to the Eye by so much the representation or projecture receiveth the lesser form by how much the nearer to the Object so much the greater But if the Eye may be removed in any kind from the Object the Table remaining so that it be removed in the same Line with the Center of the Earth or so that it remain in one Perpendicular Line to the Superficies of the Earth therefore the Figure of the projecture is not changed but only the Magnitude the similitude remaineth So also if that the Table be any ways moved to the Eye or removed towards the Object all the projectures do become of a divers Magnitude yet they remain mutually alike and represent all the places in a like scituation so that the Table shall observe the Parallel scituated from the Eye in his access and recess But if the Table receiveth another position and also if the Eye be not only removed but also recedeth from that Perpendicular Line then the like projectures shall not arise and the places shall not have the like scituation on the Earth but besides a various Magnitude there shall also be a notable dissimilitude in the scituation of the places one to the other But in the projectures of all Bodies as also in the projecture of the Superficies of the Earth it is so wont to happen that we attribute such a scituation to the Table or Glass that it may touch the Body or Superficies in that Point to which the Line drawn is Perpendicular to the Superficies of the Body or which is drawn from the Eye to the Center of the Earth now to obtain the lesser or greater projecture we remove the Point of the Eye more or less from the Earth But then we conceive the Earth to be very small This in general being explained concerning the projecture of the Earth and the Original of Geographical Maps we shall shew the Method of doing it where first we shall shew whether these Tables should be made according to the Rules of Perspective and whether all may be made according to them for the end of these Tables or Maps is to the life and exactly as may be to express the scituation of the places in the Superficies of the Earth Therefore it is demanded and that not unadvisedly whether this may be done by another Method which observeth not the Rules of Perspective for whether it be done according to the Rules of Perspective or contrary to them so that it exactly representeth the scituation of the places the Table shall be accounted to be well done To that I answer that although certain Tables of some small Province may be made and are also made by another Method to wit by Angles of position or also by distances as we shall shew in the last place yet in a great part of the Superficies of the Earth it cannot be performed by a more commodious Method than by the Rules of Perspective although the true scituation of the places may not be represented in the Tables made according to these Rules Things to be known about the making of these Maps For we must know that in making of these Maps we must attend to a threefold end 1. That all the places must have such a scituation and distance to the chief Circles of the Earth as the Aequator the Parallels the Meridians as they have in the Earth it self so that from those Tables the Parallels of every place the distance from the Aequator from the Pole the Zone the Climate c. may be beheld because that from thence many properties of the Regions and Celestial appearances do depend 2. That the Magnitudes of every Region may have that proportion that they have in the Earth it self 3. That every place may have the same scituation to the other mutually which they have in the Earth it self Of these three requisites all Maps or Tables ought exactly to perform the first and for the most part exactly do because they are made from the Table of Latitude and Longitude of places neither do the Rules of Perspective hinder the same But for the second they cannot accurately perform the same if that the Rules of Perspective be observed because the crooked paths of the Superficies being more remote from the Eye makes the representation lesser in the Glass than those parts subjected to the Eye but yet that inequality is small and becometh insensible if that the Eye be conceived to be remote an infinite interval from the Earth But the third requisite can be performed by no larger Tables such are those of the whole Earth also those of the 4 quar of the Earth and the greater Provinces although they may accomplish it in the lesser Regions and the vulgar suppose
the Shore and in the Harbours as also greater Ships come to Zeland than to Holland Proposition V. If a Ship be so burdened that its weight or gravity be almost equal to the weight or gravity of the Sea water equal to the capacity of the Ship yet it sinketh not in the Sea but when it shall be brought into any Rivers it sinketh to the bottom The reason is because the Water of Rivers is lighter than the Water of the Sea Therefore if the weight of the laden Ship be almost equal to the gravity of the Marine Water therefore it shall be greater than the gravity of River Water and so the Ship shall be sunk in the River or carried to the bottom Many Ships for this reason have perished which have been over laden by unskilful Mariners or not unburdened in the Mouths of the Rivers Now how much this gravity should be is known from the proportion of the Sea Water to River Water Proposition VI. Any body swiming on the water hath that weight that the watery Moles hath equal to the demergent part of this body Corollary The part of the Ship being given which is under Water the weight of the whole burdened Ship may be found For the gravity of the Water is known or is easy to be found For Example one Cubick foot of Water is 70 li. and therefore if the part of the Ship under Water be 2000 Cubick foot therefore the gravity of the Watery Moles which is equal to the part of the Ship under Water shall be 140000 li. So much also shall be the weight of the Ship laded Proposition VII A Ship is most commonly accounted commodiously to carry that quantity of burden whose gravity is equal to the gravity of half the Moles of water which the Ship can contain For Example if the Ship can carry 500000 Tun of Water whereof every one is accounted at 2000 li. weight that is if it contain the Water of 1000000000 li. You may conveniently lade it with the burden of 250000 Tuns 1000000000. In this sense you must understand it when they say that Ships are so many Tuns or carry so many Lasts The Spanish Carracts carry 1200 Lasts the greatest Holland Indian Ship 800 Lasts Proposition VIII By how much the Weight of the Ship laded is greater by so much the less it is tossed with storms and tempests A laded Ship is not so subject to be tossed in Tempests as when not laden Ships of 2000 Tuns are not in danger of those Tempests which are vexatious to Ships of 300 or 500 Tuns Much more might be said but this may suffice for Elements CHAP. XXXVII Of the third and chief Part of the Nautick Aâ—t viz. the Art of Guiding or Navigating of a Ship and its subdivision of the Four Parts Proposition I. That is termed the Art of Guiding or Navigating of a Ship which teacheth unto what quarters a Ship is to be Guided in any scituation of it in the Sea that it may come to the purposed place without danger I Make Four Parts of it Of the Guiding or Steering of Ships 1. Special Geography that is the knowledge of a space intercepted between two places and the properties of the same 2. The knowledge of the quarters in every place 3. The cognition of the Line by which the Ship is to be brought from one place to the other for there are between every two places infinite intercepted Lines this part is termed Histriodromice 4. The knowledge of the scituation of every place unto which by Sailing we arrive or how these places are scituated unto that place unto which the Ship is to be directed This is the chief part of the Art of Sailing Proposition II. The cognition of the intermedial space comprehendeth these things Things observed from Special Geography and Nautical Maps 1. The scituations of the places the procurrences of Angles the bending of the Shores the aspect of Promontories Mountains Bays the depths of Waters the sight of Islands and Coasts of Lands All which are known from Special Geography and Nautical Maps but most easily and with greatest certainty from observation and frequent Navigation through any tract of Land which is the only Cause that some Mariners are more fit to guide a Ship to such place and others to another 2. The knowledge of the General and Special Winds and those that are peculiar unto any place which is exceeding necessary in Navigations which are undertaken in the Torrid Zone and adjacent places For here a general Wind and in many places Anniversary Winds which we have shewed to be called Moussons Motions in our XX. Chapter do rule which either promote or hinder Navigation For the Indian Sea is Sailed by these Anniversary Winds Of these and also of storms and tempests we have spoken in the XX. Chapter See Chap. 20. 3. The Condition of the Motion of the Seas in every tract also the quarter of it into which quarter the Sea and Waves are born for they carry the Ship with them The diversity of those Motions in many places we have shewed in the XVII Chap. See Chap. 17. First of all there is required a knowledge of the Ship and reflux of the Sea and the time or hour of the increase and decrease at every day the supputation of which is termed the reckoning of the Tides for except a Master know this the Ship is often much hazarded when it is near Shores or Sands whereof most in the greatest increase of the Water do not hinder the passage of the Ship but most do in the decrease So with a flux the Navigation is more facile to the Shore and to the inlets of Rivers and the contrary is discovered in the reflux Of the supputation of this time we have spoken a little in the Proposition of the XVII Chapter CHAP. XXXVIII Of the knowledge of places viz. the North South East and West and the intermedial quarters Proposition I. In every place to know the Plagas viz. the North South East and West and the intermedial quarters The quarters very neccessary in Navigation THe knowledge of this is the most necessary of all the Problems of the whole Art of Navigation seeing that a Ship must be guided unto some quarter which if unknown there can be no direction and the very defect of this knowledge alone hindred the Navigation of the Ancients and in this is the chief difference between the Ancient and Modern Navigation For the Ancients had not a Method by which at any time in the large Ocean they might know where was the North where the South and the other quarters Therefore they could not nor durst they commit themselves to the vast Ocean but only coasted the Shores so that they might know the quarters from other signs The Ancients had a double Method of finding out the quarters The Ancients had a double Method which serveth also to the Modern Navigation of finding out the quarters
mark with a Chalk Then let the shank applied to the quarter be moved until the other noted point of the shank applied to the quarter fall in on the Parallel of the observed Latitude For the point of the falling in is the place sought viz. the place of the Ship But if that there be no Parallel of Latitude observed on the Map let the degrees intercepted between this Latitude and the vicine Parallel be taken by the interval of the Compass on the lateral line And let the Rule in the line of the quarter and one Foot of the Compass be moved together in this Parallel until the other Foot of the Compass and the noted shank do meet the point of the meeting sheweth the place of the Ship Seamen use two pair of Compasses If that you will determine more accurately by the Calculation of the place demanded on the Map or Earth it self the Problem is this The Latitude and Longitude of one place being given and the quarter in which the Navigation is appointed to another place and the Latitude of this place given to find his Longitude for the Latitude and Longitude given is the place it self 3. The quantity of the Voyage performed from one known place to another unknown being observed and the Latitude of this other being observed to find this other on the Maps Let the quantity of the Voyage performed be taken by the interval of the Compass from the opposite Scale Then if a Parallel through the degree of Latitude be observed on the Map let one Foot of the Compass be placed on the noted place the other Foot on this Parallel This point shall be the place demanded But if the Parallel pass not through the degree of Latitude let one shank of the Rule be applied to the vicine Parallel on the other shank let the degree of Latitude be noted and let the Rule be moved until the other Foot of the Compass toucheth the noted point of the Rule The place of the Map subject to the point in this scituation shall be the sought for place of the Ship If that a more accurate invention is required by Calculation the Problem shall be this The Latitude and Longitude of one place being given and the distance of the other on the line of Navigation and the Latitude of this to find out the Latitude of this other For this being known when the Latitude is observed you have the scituation of the place it self on the Maps or Earth The 4th or 5th Method also of finding out of this place is also given viz. in which the Longitude of the other or sought for place is supposed to be observed but the Latitude is unknown But because that very seldom the Longitude can be observed on the Sea therefore this Method is omitted as unuseful See Snellius Stevens and Metius He that desireth more concerning this Method let him Read Snellius Stevens Metius and others that have treated at large of it Proposition III. To conjecture unto what quarter the Ship is moved and in what Rhombe although the signs be fallacious In the solution of the former Proposition for the finding out the place of a Ship those things as noted were taken and observed 1. The quarter unto which the Ship is moved and the Rhombe in which 2. The way made 3. The Latitude of the place unto which it hath arrived Now therefore we must shew how these three may be observed on the Sea that they may be used for the finding out of the place For if that these be not rightly known or observed the true place shall neither be found or discovered First therefore let us see concerning the quarter of the course of the Ship and the Rhombe The Pilots know the quarter from the Compass or Loadstone The Pilots know the quarter from the Compass or Loadstone For what quarter or Rhombe of the Compass agreeth with the Line of the conceived Longitude of the Ship the same is put into the quarter of the Ship to be moved and to describe its Rhombe For they seldom use the sign taken from the quarter of the apparent rising and setting of the Sun which they compute These signs may be corrupted by divers Causes so that they may deceive in shewing the Rhombe or quarter 1. If that the Declination of the Magnetick Needle be uncertain in that place and therefore the quarters of the Compass do not shew the true quarters 2. If that the Sea in that place hath a flux to a certain place for it will carry the Ship from the true Rhombe although the Ship be directed unto the same quarter the fluxes and refluxes are the frequent cause of this error And in many places of the Torrid Zone a general Motion is of force and in many places a stated and fixed Motion from stated winds 3. Winds especially storms remove the Ship from the Rhombe of their Voyage although they ply in the same quarter 4. The fluxes of the Sea which are carried towards other quarters and carry the Ship with it 5. The Rudder or Helme cannot be moved by him that steereth unto any quarter as it ought to be the waves of the Sea obstructing of it All these hinder the Ship to be moved in the same Rhombe whose quarters are shewed by the Compass But how much it is drawn aside must be learned by conjecture from the vehemency of the Flood and of its quarter and the like but the Method is very imperfect Proposition IV. To cast up the Voyage made upon the Rhombe to measure it at the given time from the given place The casting up the Voyage made upon the Rhombe c. Pilots conjecture the same 1. When they observe or know by experience what course a Ship is wont to make with such a Wind. 2. If that they have Sailed in the same Meridian or vicine Line with any Wind and have observed the Latitude of the place in the beginning of the Motion and the Latitude of the place in the following time For the difference of Latitude turned into miles sheweth the course made for so long a space of time and such a Wind. Whence for the time given and such a Wind continuing the course made is collected 3. With more industry they measure the course performed by a Boat and string one end of which is fastened to the Boat and the other with the Globe is in the Ship for the Ship remaining immovable Sailing is permitted to the Boat untill it be removed 10 or 12 Orgyas of the string and the time elapsed between is observed And from this for any time of the performed course of the Ship is found out The signs of the performed Sailing of the Ship are corrupted and rendred uncertain by divers ways yea are uncertain of themselves seeing they are mere conjectures 1. Oftentimes the Ship maketh lesser or greater way than the conjecture affordeth viz. because in many places of the Sea the flux is