and more probable be not much lesse shall that be which is lesse probable and possible The conclusion of such arguments must alwayes be negatiue Lastly 3. Lesse probable we may proue a thing in question by bringing in another thing that is lesse probable saying thus If a thing lesse probable and harder to be beleeved is notwithstanding or hath beene much more ought we to beleeue that which is more probable and easier to be done So if one at twelue yeares of age can carry a waight of a hundred pound by a stronger reason one may carry the same weight at the age of twentie yeares And if Alexander tooke Tyre much more easily might he haue taken Ierusalem which was weaker then Tyre if he had besieged it This is called arguing from the lesse probable to the greater grounded vpon this Maxime Maxime If that which is lesse probable and lesse possible may be much more shall that be which is more probable and more possible The conclusion of such arguments must alwaies be affirmatiue Wee must warily distinguish between the greatnesse of the thing and the greatnesse of the probabilitie For greatest things are oft lesse probable and more difficult For it were no good argument to say thus If birds can flie how much more bulls And if a threed can goe through the eie of a needle how much more a cable And if Michael Angell could paint very excellently how much more the Emperour Charles the fift The seventeenth Chapter Of Testimony TEstimonies are often vsed to argue and proue a thing Testimonies are of force and doe perswade when they be such as may not be denied by reason of the qualitie authoritie sufficiencie or multitude of persons Testimonies are either divine or humane Divine testimonies are Oracles and all that is called the Word of GOD likewise dreames visions miracles be they true or false if they be delivered as true Also rules to liue well derived from nature Humane testimonies if the question be about matter of right are humane lawes customes the testimonies of Ancestours or such as are skilfull in their owne art the consent of nations But if the question be of fact then are to be produced schedules acquittances confessions eye or eare witnesses Such witnesses Maxime as doe not affirme or denie a thing to be or not to be are of no force For there is a great difference between these two sayings God saith not that such a thing is and God saith that such a thing is not The latter is a good proofe but the former hath no consequence or sequel And likewise this proofe is of no effect Aristotle hath not said so therefore it is not so Or the Word of God saith not that man is a reasonable creature and therefore man is not a reasonable creature Notwithstanding if it be a thing which cannot be knowne but by the testimonie of one alone then this kinde of arguing is good and firme Such a one said not â—o and therefore you cannot maintaine that it is so For example if we had no knowledge of China but by the report of one man onely whosoever would affirme any thing without the warrant of such a one without question would be prooved a lyar or iâ— he spake the truth it were but by chance and not knowing himselfe whether he spake true or no. So likewise seeing that nothing that is necessary to salvation can be knowne without warrant from the Word of God whosoever in things necessarie to salvation affirmeth any thing not contained in the said word of GOD ought not to be beleeved affirmes that which he knowes not The eighteenth Chapter Of the vse or Practice of the precedent Doctrine THis Doctrine contained in the sixteene precedent Chapters is called the doctrine of Places because it shewes the places whence matter is drawne for argument and furniture for proofes For example if wee vndertake to proue that Death is not to be feared of a vertuous man wee must runne over these sixteene places and take notice of such as will best furnish vs with matter To make this plaine we will runne over the said places and apply them to this example The Genus of Death Death is the end of mans life Now the end is to be desired when it is not onely the end but also the scope that wee must ayme at such is death vnto which a wise man ought to prepare himselfe every day as being the end of his hope The difference This death comes by the separation of the soule from the bodie now wee must not feare the separation of such things as being ioyned doe hurt one another the soule consumeth the bodie with cares like vnto a knife that cuts its sheath the bodie is to the soule as a burden or a prison God separateth them to reioyne them againe in a better estate and condition The Species There be two kindes of death the one naturall caused through age the other violent which happens by sicknesse or when a man is killed Philosophers say that death which comes through age is without paine because it is without combate or resistance and who would liue when all his strength is spent violent death is not also to be feared of a vertuous man for what matter is it whether I dye of an ague or by the sword Whether by the distemper of humors or by the distemper or commotion of people Whether I yeeld vp my soule by the mouth or by a wound so it may goe to God The properties and accidents of Death Death makes all alike both great and small It dismasketh and discovereth thoughts then dissimulation hath no more place The words of the dying are serious and of great weight their prayers are fervent their confession humble their admonitions to their children are received with attention the spirit of God comforteth them within the Angels guard and assist them without and Iesus Christ reacheth them out the crowne Of things conjoyned with Death If we must not bewaile the dead why should we then feare death The causes of Death The efficient cause of death is the will of God which wee were better to yeeld vnto willingly then by compulsion why should we resist Gods will seeing it is iust and vnevitable Againe the law of nature vnder the which we are borne is the cause of death plead not therefore against your owne hand writing Wouldst thou haue the lawes of the world changed for thee The finall cause of death in regard of the world is that we may giue place one to another thy father hath given place to thee giue thou place to thy children The finall cause of death in regard of every vertuous man is to put an end to all his miseries and to bring him home to God For all these causes of death a vertuous man ought not to feare it Causes wherefore a thing ought not to be feaâ—ed A thing is not to be feared first if it is vnevitable secondly
a divided sense As in this proposition A man that is set may runne Which is true if it be meant at divers times but if it be meant at the same time it is false and impossible For a man that is set cannot runne whilest he is sitting So that men are male and female is true of divers persons but false if it be meant of the same persons 4. Of the fallacie by Division This fallacie of Division is contrary to the former For this separateth things which cannot be true except they be joyned together Thus though it be true that two and three make fiue yet it followeth not that two or three are fiue If a man should say This wall is white therefore this wall is this consequence were good because to be white is an accident which could not be if the subject were not But if one should say Philip is dead therefore Philip is the consequence were not good because that to be dead is not an accideÌ„t but a privation which presupposeth that the subject namely Philip was but now is no more Whosoever therefore argueth thus divideth that which cannot be true except it be joyned This division may happen somtimes in one word onely As Ingeniosus being taken for one word is a commendation but divided into two as Ingenio sus it is a reproach 5. Of the fallacie in the Accent or Pronuntiation The fallacie in the Accent is when a false thing is affirmed vnder colour of pronouncing it as another thing that is true For example Where no ach is there needs no salue In the Gout there is no H. Therefore in the Gout there needs no salue Againe if a man should say I am hot are you as hot Or I am cold are you as cold A man cannot distinguish in fast speaking of it whether he saith a sot in stead of as hot Or a scould in stead of as cold But being written a man shall easily perceiue this fallacie This fallacie is also coÌ„mitted when that which is spoken positiuely is taken as if it were spoken by Interrogation As if a man commanding say to another Rest you and he taking it Interrogatiuely should answer No. 6. Of the fallacie in the Figure of the word The fallacie in the figure of the word is when from the Gender or Number of the word or because the Verbe is Actiue or Passiue a man will inferre that the nature of the thing is such For example if a man should argue that Prudence Temperance or Iustice are onely proper and peculiar vnto women because they are of the feminine gender which no way followeth So likewise because to heare and to see be not Passiues it followeth not that therfore hearing and seeing are no Passiues And although I say that I haue received letters from my brother it followeth not that I haue received more then one though the word be Plurall The second Chapter Of Fallacies in the Matter THere are seaven fallacies in the Matter that is to say when the deceipt lyeth not in the words but in the ignorance or disguising of the thing These fallacies are 1. The fallacie by Accident 2. The fallacie which taketh a thing as spoken simply or absolutely which is true onely in some respect 3. The Supposing of that which is in question 4. The fallacie of Inconsequence 5. The fallacie whereby a thing is taken for a cause which is not a cause 6. The fallacie which mingleth divers questions as if they were but one 7. The Ignorance of that which contradicteth the question The third Chapter The fallacie by Accident THe fallacie by Accident is when from an assumption which is true onely by accident a conclusion is drawne which is absolute simple and without restraint As in this argument That which stirres vp troubles in a Common-wealth is pernicious The Gospell stirres vp troubles in a Common-wealth Therefore the Gospell is pernicious Thus the Sunne darkeneth the eye-sight and the law of God hardeneth the sinner Whence if a man would inferre that the Sunne were the cause of darkenesse or that the Law were the câ—use of sinne he should fall into the fallacie of the Accident For the Gospell of it owne nature stirreth vp no troubles seing it preacheth peace but men take occasion thereby to rise vp against it Neither doth the Sunne blind the eyes by nature but by accident when it meeteth with a weake eye-sight The fourth Chapter The fallacie which taketh a thing as simply true which is not so but onely in some respect THis fallacie is committed when one of the propositions being true onely in part or in some respect wee labour to draw from thence a conclusion to make it true at all times in all respects and in every part As Every good thing is to be desired Wealth is a good thing Therefore wealth is to be desired The assumption is true in some respect onely and to some men For riches are not good but to good men and to such as can vse them well And so in this Syllogisme He that is borne of a woman had a beginning Our Saviour Christ was borne of a woman Therefore our Saviour Christ had a beginning The fift Chapter Of the Supposing of that which is in Question VVE suppose that which is in question when wee make a Syllogisme wherein one of the propositions is the same thing which is in question though it be couched in other termes As if I would prooue thaâ— the world was not created because God made it not Or if I would proue that men are iust because they are without sinne that were to proue a thing by it selfe The sixt Chapter Of the fallacie of Inconsequence THe fallacie of Inconsequence is when we breake the rules which are set downe in the Chapter of the conversion of Enuntiations and in the Chapter of Hypotheticall Syllogismes For â—â—ample wee said in the fourth Chaptâ—â— of the third Booke that an vniversall affirmatiue enuntiation cannot be converted into any other proposition but into a particular affirmatiue or into an vniversall having two negatiues As All men are living creatures is thus converted Some living creature is a man Or into this Whatsoever is not a living creature is not man Againe we said that in Hypotheticall Syllogismes we may proceede from the establishing of the Antecedent to the establishing of the Consequent And that we may proceede from the over-throwing of the Consequent to the over-throwing of the Antecedent Now if any would dispute contrary to these Rules saying All men are living creatures therefore all living creatures are men Or All men are living creatures therefore all that is not man is not a living creature he should fall into the fallacie of a bad Consequence The same fallacie is committed if you argue thus If Bucephalus be a man he is a living creature But he is a living creature Therefore he is a man Or thus If Bucephalus be a man he is a living creature But he is not
salt is said of the whole Sea and of every part of it but to encompasse the earth is attributed onely to the Sea as it is a Whole and therefore it is not attributed to any part of the Sea The Table of the Whole and Parts The Whole is composed of parts Formall Materiall which are among themselues alike vnlike integrall not integrall necessary for being well-being not necessary The eight Chapter Of Definition DEfinition is a speech which expresseth the essence of the thing The perfect definition of a Substance is that which is compounded of the next Genus and the specificall difference As the definition of a Plant is to be a bodie liuing a vegetatiue life of man to be a reasonable creature There are but few such Definitions because the formes and essentiall differences of substances are not so well knowne vnto vs. God onely who made them doth exactly know them The perfect definition of an Accident is compounded of three parts namely of the next Genus of the proper Subject and of the next Efficient or Finall cause As for example death is an accident whereof the Genus is the end or destruction of life the Subject is a liuing bodie and the next Efficient cause is the extinguishing of vitall heat This therefore is the perfect definition of death namely that it is the destruction of the life of a liuing bodie by extinguishing the vitall heat Thus are defined anger griefe sicknes thunder earthquake the Eclipse of the Moone and that of the Sunne Civil-warre respiration and divers other things whereof wee shall produce some examples in the end of this Chapter Now but Proper Accidents can be thus defined For mutable and casuall Accidents or such as haue no certaine knowne cause or that depend vpon the will of man cannot be exactly defined And therefore in stead of a Definition we describe them as well as we may expressing their Genus and some certaine propertie So whitenes is defined when we say that it is a most simple and most cleare colour And light is defined to be the chiefe of all whitenesses or the whitenes of the bodie of the Sunne sending forth his likenes through transparent bodies Naturall instruments as the eye and the hand or artificiall as a hammer or ana xe are defined by their Genus and by their fitnes for that vse for which they are ordained So the Eye is the instrument of seeing and a Hammer is an instrument to knocke withall Definition serveth to discourse and to argue by the meanes of this Maxime Maxime To whatsoever thing the definition agreeth vnto that same also the thing defined doth agree And reciprocally to whatsoever the defined thing agreeth to the same the definition agreeth also The Table of Definition Definition is either of a Substance which is composed of the Next Genus Difference Accident which is Proper defined by the Next Genus Proper subject Next cause Efficient Finall Improper or casuall defined as the Substance so far as may be Certaine examples of the definition of a Proper Accident THunder is a sound in the cloud by the breaking out of a flaming exhalation Death is the destruction of a living creature by extinguishing the vitall heat The Eclipse of the Moone is the darkning of the Moone by the interposition of the earth Anger is a perturbation of the mind arising from the opinion of a sustained wrong Civill warre is the trouble of an Estate arising from the discord of the parties Baldnes is the losse of the haire of the head through the want of radicall humour Respiration is the drawing in of aire into the lungs to refresh the heart Sicknes is an Indisposition of the bodie caused by the distemperature of the Humours The Earthquake is the stirring or moving of a part of the earth through the violence of winds therein enclosed Blindnes is a privation of light in the eye by the corruption of the instruments of seeing Sorrow is a griefe in the irascible facultie through the griefe of some evill The Eclipse of the Sunne is the darkning of the aire by the interposition of the Moone The ninth Chapter Of Division THere are divers sorts of Divisions For either we divide the Genus into the Species or the Whole into the Parts or the Substance into divers Accâ—dents or an Accident into divers Subjects or a Word into divers significations 1. First we divide a Genus into the Species As a liuing creature into man and beast Actions into naturall and voluntarie 2. Or els we divide the Whole into Parâ—s So man is divided into Soule and bodie A house into the foundations walls and roofe Which division is made either in thought or in deed 3. Or els we divide the Subject into divers Accidents As when we divide men into free and bond into males or females into fooles or wisemen 4. Or els we divide an Accident into other Accidents As when we divide Physicians into rich and poore ones souldiers into great or little ones strong or weake 5. Or els we divide Accidents into divers Subjects As sicknes into the sicknes of the bodie and sicknes of the soule So we may divide corruption into the corruption of simple bodies or into the corruption of mixt or compounded bodies 6. Or we divide an Aequivocall word into divers significatioÌ„s As the word linke which signifieth a Sausage a Torch and a linke of a chaine Rules for Division 1. A good division must haue but few parts and those opposit if it may be As animal is divided into reasonable and vnreasonable Number into even and odd A line into straight and crocked But that is not alwayes possible As when we divide the externall senses into fiue And France into seventeene governements 2. In a Division nothing must be either superfluous or wanting As if a man should say that the senses are hearing seeing smelling and the two eyes there were in such a Division something wanting and something superfluous 3. The parts of a Division must not over-reach one another As who should say that all cloathing of the bodie is either garments or habillements or gownes Or that Iustice consisteth in three things to liue honestly to hurt no bodie to giue every man his owne In these divisions the parts are but little or not at all differing and are in a manner the same thing The Table of Division Division is of the Genus into the Species Whole into the Parts Subject into Accidents Accidents into divers Subjects Aequivocall word into divers significations The tenth Chapter Of things Coupled called in Latin Conjugata COupling is considered either in Words or in Things Words coupled or conjoyned are such as come from the same beginning and differ in termination As iust iustice iustly white whiting to white whitenes The linke and affinitie of which words is grounded vpon some affinitie which is in the nature of the things signified by these words But there are certaine things coupled in
Nature which are not coupled in Words As the sleepe and to slumber There are also certain words coupled which notwithstanding for matter are not of necesâ—â—tie linked together As buckle and a buckler Now for argument and discourse the coupling and affinitie which is in words is of no vse except there be also affinitie in the thing but where the affinitie of words proceeds from the affinitie in the thing we vse this Maxime Maxime To whomsoever one of the Coniugates or things coupled doth belong the others also belong vnto the same As he that lyeth is a lyar And to whomsoever it belongeth to doe a iust thing to him also belongeth iustice and to liue iustly And seeing thou art a knaue thou must be given vnto knavery This Maxime is not without Exception As may appeare by the example of Cambyses who being very vnjust did notwithstanding some just actions As in that he covered the seat of justice with the skinne of an vnjust Iudge whom he caused to be flâ—ad as a warning to all that should sit vpon the said seat And so there may be a Prince loving treason who notwithstanding hateth the traitour The eleventh Chapter Of Causes and Effects A Cause is that which bringeth forth an Effect or that by which or for which any thing is There be foure kinds of Causes the Materiall the Formall the Efficient and the Finall For example the matter of a house is stones wood and tyles the forme is the structure and manner of building which ariseth from the placing or ordering of the parts the efficient cause is the Master-builder the finall cause is for dwelling or habitation The efficient and finall causes are called Externall because they are out of the thing and are not parts of it As the builder is no part of the house for suppose the builder were shut vp in the house which he hath built yet were he still an externall cause by reason that he is not of the essence or definition of the house nor any part of it But the matter and forme are Internal causes because the thing is composed of them The cause Materiall Matter is that whereof the thing is composed As leather is the matter of a shoe because a shoe is made of leather Matter is of two sorts the one is called matter of Generation as the seed is the matter of the Generation of a tree slime is the matter of the Generation of frogs so water is the matter of ice The other is the matter of Composition As the foure elements are the matter wherof a bodie is composed wood and stone are the matter of a house Sometimes matter is taken improperly for the subject whereof we speake or write Thus battails and loue are the matter of the booke of Ariost And sometimes for the occasion and subject whereabout man doth labour and occupie himselfe As numbers are the matter of an Arithmetician and dangers and troubles are the matter of prowesse and patience Forme is that which giueth being to a thing Formall Of Formes some are Naturall As the forme of an Animal is the sensitiue soule and the forme of the eye is the facultie of seeing Others are Artificiall As the forme of a statua of a house or of a clock Naturall formes are part of the substance and are multiplied by generation But Artificiall formes are qualities and no parts of the substance neither are they multiplied by generation or propagation If we engraue the image of Caesar vpon a nut that nut being planted will bring forth fruit and nuts but not the image of Caesar And thence it is that children are not heires of the learning or piety of their fatâ—ers The Efficient Efficient cause is that by which a thing is As the Sunne is the efficient cause of the day and the fire of burning and sicknes of death and the interposition of the Moone the cause of the eclipse of the Sunne Vnder the Efficient cause we comprehend the cause which is called Meritorious As murther is the cause of punishment Likewise vnder the Efficient cause we comprehend the cause which is called Defectiue As the want of sight is the cause of going astray and the absence of the Sunne is the cause of night howsoever by nature it be the cause of day All instruments both naturall as the eye and the hand and artificiall as an Axe and a sword are in some sort Efficient causes For though they act not by their owne proper power yet they helpe the action and without them the naturall action would either be weake or altogether hindered The Finall Finall cause is that for the which a thing is done So the end of Physick is to heale the sick and the end of Studie is to get learning We must warily distinguish the scope from the end As the scope of walking is health but the end is the last step the one is the end of the intention the other the end of progression The finall cause may also be the formall and efficient cause but â—n divers respects As the forme of the house is the end of the builder and the forme of a horse engendred is the efficient cause of the operations of the same horse and also the finall cause of the horse engendring And that which is the final cause iâ— commonly an effect As to see is the finall cause and also the effect of sight Of causes the finall is the best and most excellent because all the other tend vnto it and serue it The finall cause as it is the last in execution so it is the first in the intention Efficient and finall causes bring forth their effects Causes of themselues or by accident either of themselues and of their owne nature or by accident Thus the Sunne giueth light of it selfe and of his owne nature but by accident it blindeth Owles And the neighing of Darius his horse was the accidentall cause of his raise to the kingdome And thirst may be an accidentall cause to saue a man out of the battaile if being thirstie and gone out of the armie to drinke it so happened that whilest he was a drinking the armie was suddenly discomfited So a Musician that buildeth a house is not the cause of the building as he is a Musician but as he is an architect or builder It is the same of the finall cause For example healing is the proper end of Physick but the gaine of the Physician is an accidentall end the one is the end of the Art and the other of the person Causes next or remote Againe there be some next and some remote causes For example the next end of the art of a souldier is warre and the remote is victory and the end more remote is a happie peace So the next efficient cause of death is sicknes of sicknes excesse and of excesse bad company The same may be said of formes and matters The next matter of a Table is
the wood but the remote matter are the foure Elements The next forme of any thing is that which wee call Specificall but the remote formes are those of the next or of the remote Genus So the next forme of a man is to be reasonable but to haue sense is the forme of a liuing creature which is the Genus of man and by consequent also is the forme of man but remote Moreover there be causes Causes sufficient or not sufficient which are Sufficient of themselues to produce an effect As the Sunne is of it selfe sufficient to giue light and fire to burne and the favour of God to make a man happie But there are some causes which are not of themselues Sufficient must haue many together As to make a fertile soile the ground must be lustie it must be well tilled raine must moisten it and the Sunne must heat it in due season and moderately To attaine vnto learning a man must haue a good wit good instructions and be diligent and painefull So divers things are the causes of victory experience in the Generall valour in the Souldiers military Discipline necessary weapons c. but aboue all the will of God Now to argue from the causes and effects these Maximes Maximes are of vse 1. That which agreeth with the matter agreeth also probably with the thing composed of that matter As the earth is heavie and therefore terrestriall bodies are heavie This Maxime is sometimes faultie For example Ice is hard yet notwithstanding the matter of it is soft and liquid namely water 2. Where the matter is wanting there also the thing composed is wanting As where there is no iron a sword cannot be made 3. The next efficient and necessary cause being granted or denied the effect also must be granted or denied As if the Sunne shine it is day if it shines nor it is not day And this effect being granted the efficient cause is also granted 4. When divers causes are necessarily requisit to produce an effect one of the same causes being wanting the effect also is wanting 5. Such as is the efficient cause such commonly are the effects As of wicked Fathers come wicked Sonnes and strong things beget strong things and Moores haue blacke sonnes This Maxime is often false especially in remote and vniversall causes As the Sunne groweth not and yet it causeth plants to grow it hath no sent and yet causeth flowres to smell sweet and carions to stinke And God mooveth all but yet is immoovable Also in causes which act by accident As a Whetstoâ—e is not sharpe yet causeth sharpenesse the Sunne is not hot yet warmeth by accident in clearing and purifying the ayre by the reflection of his beames 6. If the selfe same qualitie be attributed vnto the agent and vnto the patient it must much more be attributed vnto the agent As the hand is warme by reason of the fire which acteth vpon it therefore the fire is hotter then the hand And the Sunne causeth the water to shine therefore it is brighter then the water This Maxime is false in the fourth species of qualitie namely in the forme and figure because this qualitie receiues neither more nor lesse As if the Seale be round it followeth not that the figure printed in the waxe be lesse round then the Seale 7. The end being granted those meanes also without which the end cannot be attained vnto are likewise granted As if you grant that a man liveth you grant also that he eats drinkes and breaths And happinesse being granted vertue and the favour of God are likewise granted 8. The meanes to attaine vnto the end being granted it followeth not that the end must therefore alwayes be granted For it is no good reason to say Philip hath bookes therefore he is learned he hath horses and weapons therefore he shall obtaine the victory So also the end being taken away the meanes are not alwayes therefore taken away For many though they haue the meanes in their hands never attaine vnto the end 9. Causes by chance or hazard are not fit to argue withall 10. If necessary effects be taken away the causes also are taken away I say necessarie For there are some causes which act not necessarily and which do not alwayes produce their effects As sicknesse brings not alwayes death 11. Causes are more excellent then their effects vnlesse the effect be a finall cause And therefore to see and heare are things more excellent then the faculties of seeing and hearing because those faculties are ordained onely for these effects namely to see and to heare 12. The causes ever goe before their effects in the order of nature but not alwayes in time Thus the Sun-beames are as ancient as the Sunne and the flame is never without clearenesse or brightnesse The Table of Causes Causes are Internall Matter of Generation Composition Forme Naturall Artificiall Externall Efficient Properly Improperly as the cause Meritorious InstrumeÌ„tall naturall artificiall Finall All causes are either 1. Next or Remote 2. By themselues or By accident 3. Sufficient or Insufficient The twelfth Chapter Of Etymologie ETymologie is the derivation of a word Etymologie in regard of the word is as a Definition in regard of the thing and serveth to argue and discourse As when we say Such a one is not a Counsellour because he giues no Counsell And Philip cannot be called a Philosopher because he loues not wisedome Thus by the Etymologie of these names Iesus and Christ wee gather what our Saviours calling and office is And wee encourage such as haue a name importing some vertue in stirring them vp to vertue by the Etymologie of their names So Eusebius and Pius may be exhorted to Pietie and Andrew to valour and Celestinus to giue himselfe to heavenly things least they belie their names by a contrary conversation And so one gathereth probably that all things in times past were common the Robe excepâ—ed because when a theft is committed we vse to say Such a one hath beene robbed and that the first Warres were against Beasts because the Latin word Bellum coÌ„meth from Bellua But these kinde of proofes are very weake because names are given vnto men before it can be knowne whether they will be vertuous or no nay sometimes names are given by contraries and by way of derision As when a dwarfe is called a Goliah Good Etymologies in the English tongue are for the most part taken from the Latin but such as are drawne from the English tongue are commonly absurd and ridiculous For example if a man should say that the woman is the woe of the man and beere quasi be heere The thirteenth Chapter Of things alike or vnlike THose things are called Alike which haue between them some Analogie and correspondencie or proportion The analogie is knowne by the end and vse As the Shepheard in regard of his flocke and the Pastor in regard of his Church are things Alike There be certain things
if it hurteth not thirdly if it be profitable Death hath in it these three things For it is vnevitable therefore as it is a folly to hope for things impossible so it is a folly to feare things vnevitable Againe death 〈◊〉 not hurtful because our Saviour Christ hath taken away the curse thereof Lastly it is profitable and that is knowne by the effects which follow The Effects Death is profitable before death for it abateth pride Thou seest now a triumphing Monarch and ere long toads will breed in his skull and wormes in his entrails The thought of death keepes a man in feare and sobriety as also from sinning Without it man would hardly be tamed It makes vs despise the world and to acknowlâ—dge the vanitie of all our toyle It makes vs more earnest in prayer and increaseth our faith through resistance After death it makes vs fully know that which we here see but a farre of and very obscurely It ioineth vs with the Saints and placeth vs with Christ Iesus To feare death is to offer wrong vnto Christ as if it were ill being with him It maketh vs to see the face of God which changeth them that see it into his owne likenesse It bringeth vs into the possession of peace without end of contentment without interruption and felicitie without measure The Similitudes If new borne babes had the vse of reason they would never crie but rather much reioyce that they part from such an vncleane and obscure place to enter into the light of this world So if we had the right vse of reason wee would not be sad when death comes because our soules goe out of an vncleane straight and obscure place or rather prison to enter into the light of heaven Death is like Samsons Lyon whereof it is written that from bitternesse came sweetnesse Or like vnto the harsh sound of a boult at the opening of a doore which notwithstanding is very pleasing if it be to come out of a prison Or as when Christ came to his Disciples walking on the waters they said it was a spirit but when they saw him neerer hand they said of him and so must we of death it is the Lord that commeth vnto vs. The Opposits Present life is opposed vnto death now if there be no cause to desire life no more is there to feare death Vpon this occasion you may run through every age of mans life as also through the dâ—vers conditions that are from the Prince to the beggar and shew that all is but miserie Besides those evils and accidents which are common to all The Comparison in regard of Goodnesse Mutable and transitorie things are not so good as those that are eternall and permanent Againe the good which sufficeth alone is better then that good which when we haue wee haue yet need of another He that hath happily ended his life needeth neither money nor apparell nor honour nor health c. but he that hath nothing but the present life hath need of all these things and besides them eternall good things The Comparison in regard of Probabilitie Probable alike If Martyrs feared not to dye in the flâ—mes of fire why should we feare to dye in sicknesse seeing we haue the same hope Lesse probable If the Heathen went to their deaths with as ioyfull a countenance as others that returned safe from thence why should wee feare it that haue a better hope Why should ambition haue more force in them then faith in vs If a souldier doth adventure himselfe vpon the mouth of the Cannon-shot and offereth himselfe the first vpon a breach for the pay of six-pence a day what should wee doe for an everlasting kingdome Testimonies Here must be alledged the passages of the word of God the sentences of Philosophers the examples of such as haue dyed constantly As of Regulus of the two Decius of the Gymnosophists of the Indian Women of the Tribals of the Martyrs c. Finally by these sixteene places as by certaine directions we are furnished with abundance of matter for argument and discourse And by these helpes we are put in remembrance of all that we haue read heard or seene which may serue to amplifie the matter propounded But the Maximes which are added to every place are of vse to teach vs how the argument may bee well grounded for they are as lights vnto our reason And note also that these places furnish vs with matter to argue as well for Death which is the Subject of this questioÌ„ as for Not to be feared which is the Attribute thereof as wee shall see hereafter But the Arguments which are drawne from the attribute are the strongest and most forcible ANOTHER EXAMPLE The praise of Sobrietie The Species of Sobrietie WE speake not heere of that Sobrietie which the Physicians appoint by dyet nor of that which is through necessitie when we haue nothing to eat nor of that cold gravitie of the Germans aâ— the beginning of their meales nor of that of covetous persons who grudge themselues things necessarie nor of that which is performed by a scrupulous abstinence But of that which is a morall vertue The Definition Sobrietie is a temperance which prescribeth a moderation in eating and drinking The Whole and the Parts Neither doe we speake of that Sobrietie which consisteth in certaine meates and not in other in eating and not in drinking in his owne hâ—use and not in companie For sobrietie giues lawes for all times and all places and for all sorts of meates and drinkes The Etymologie 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Grecians haue rightly derived sobrietie from a word which signifieth to keepe the vnderstanding sound because it preserveth the health and the libertie of the vnderstanding The Genus I say it is a species of Temporance Now Temperance is the nurse of all other vertues the guardian of bodily hâ—alâ—h and of the light of the minde making it not to be subiâ—ct to the belly it keepâ—th in brutall concupiscence and teachâ—th how to eat to liue and not to liue to eat The causes The cause why a thing is to be commended or desired is if it be honest delightfull and profitable Now sobrietie hath all these three for it is a good and comely thing to haue an vpright body in old age to haue a fresh and liuely countenance not to be seene drunke nor croaking in an Alehouse among debauched persons c. It is a delightfull thing to be cheerfull and affable and to haue peace at home for drunkennes breedeth quarrels Pleasures seldome vsed are sweetest It is a profitable thing to haue a strong body a free minde fit to goe about civill affaires to haue a good memorie not to wast goods to provide for the necessitie of the familie to husband the time well not to reveale secrets sobrietie is of vse for all these The Effects The causes for the which sobrietie is commendable are also effects of sobrietie and therefore we
Therefore it neigheth not But such conclusions follow by chance and not by the force of the Syllogisme In these Syllogismes the assumption is part of the proposition which proposition maketh an entire Syllogisme And it is probable that this word Assumption is borrowed from these Syllogismes because that in them the second proposition is taken and assumed out of the first The foureteenth Chapter Of Disiunctiue Syllogismes DIsjunctiue Syllogismes are such whose proposition is compounded of two disjunctiue parts or peeces or which are separated by this particle OR As It is day or night This number is even or odd As thus This man is dead or aliue But he is dead Therefore he is not aliue Or els thus But he is aliue Therefore he is not dead Or thus But he is not aliue Therefore he is dead For those propositiōs are compounded of such parts the one whereof cannot be granted without overthrowing the other Nor can you overthrow the one without establishing or graunting the other And for this cause these two parts must be immediately opposit so as there may be no third For example this argument is not good There is peace or warre But there is no warre Therefore there is peace For there may be a truce In these Syllogismes to the end that the truth may be evident and without exception the two parts of the proposition must not be contradictorie but must be either contraries or privatiues or relatiues For example if I argue thus This line is straight or crooked But it is straight Therefore it is not crooked This argument is cleere and certaine But if I argue thus Philip is wise or vnwise But he is vnwise From thence wee can draw no conclusion that may haue any likelihood of reason ¶ The fift Booke OF THE MASTER-PEECE OF LOGICK called DEMONSRATION The first Chapter What Science is THIS word Science is somtimes taken for the whole bodie of one kind of learning Thus Ethicks Physicks Metaphysicks civill Law are called Sciences Sometimes the word Science signifieth onely the knowledge of a conclusion prooved by Demonstration And this is it whereof we purpose to treat of in this place which is thus defined Science is a certaine knowledge of a thing certaine whose proofe is drawne from the cause To haue the Science of a thing two certainties are required The one is that the thing be certaine of it selfe and vnchangeable The second is that the perswasion which wee haue of it be firme and cleare If either of these two certainties be wanting it is no Science but opinion For a man may haue a doubtfull opinion of a thing certaine As he that doubteth whether there be a God And on the contrary a man may haue a firme and stedfast perswasion of that which is vncertaine and false As those that suffer death for the defence of a false Religion And therefore it is not amisse to know the difference between Science Faith and Opinion Science is a certaine knowledge of a certaine thing by the next cause Opinion is a doubtfull or false knowledge Faith is a firme perswasion grounded vpon the Testimonie of some other If a man know certainly a thing because he seeth it or toucheth it that is neither called Science nor Faith nor opinion but sense which knoweth onely things singular but Science is of things vniversall The second Chapter What a Demonstration or Demonstratiue Syllogisme is A Demonstratiue Syllogisme is that which giveth or bringeth certaine knowledge of the conclusion If we will define it more exactly we must define it thus A demonstratiue Syllogisme is that which prooveth that the attribute of the conclusion is truely attributed vnto the subject by a Meane that must be the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute of the said conclusion These two sorts of causes were called externall in the Chapter of Causes aboue mentioned because they are no parts of the effect nor of the thing compounded though sometimes the efficient cause be in the very same subject As the soule of man is the cause of the sense in man and the thicknesse of gold is the cause of the weight of it In these examples the efficient cause and the effect are in the same subject The third Chapter What questions are demonstrable SVch questions wherein the attribute is a substance cannot bee prooved by demonstration because substances haue no certaine efficient cause proper vnto them For the will of God is an vniversall cause common to all things and by consequent it can be no Meane in a demonstratiue Syllogisme Againe such questions or conclusions wherein the attribute is a mutable or casuall accident cannot be proved by demonstration because these accidents haue no certaine and assured cause As Philip is rich Bucephalus halteth But those questions are demonstrable whose attribute is a proper and immutable accident whereof the next efficient or finall cause may be given For example these questions may be prooved by demonstration A transparent bodie is without colour Eunuches are never bald Fixt Starres doe twinckle The Moone suffers obscuritie Of all estates Oligarchie is the most subiect to civill warre Lines paralell never meet All bodies compounded of Elements are corruptible Vnder the scorching Zone it is very hot For the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute of these questiōs may be given The fourth Chapter What the propositions of a demonstratiue Syllogisme ought to be THe Demonstration must consist of necessary propositions among which those are the most necessarie which are called Immediate There be two sorts of immediate propositions that is to say such as are without any middle For some are immediate in regard of the subject and others are immediate in regard of the cause Immediate propositions in regard of the subject are when the attribute agreeth next of all and immediately to the subject so as a neerer subject cannot be given In such propositions the attribute agreeth with the subject because it is such a subject For example if I say that a horse hath sense this attribute agrees not next and immediately to a horse for there is a neerer subject namely an Animal vnto the which sense belongeth But if I say that a horse neigheth this agreeth next and immediately to a horse as he is a horse and not by reason of any other neerer subject Immediate propositions in regard of the cause are when an attribute is so neerely joyned to the subject as that the cause or reason cannot bee yeelded why it should be so For example here is a Demonstration Whatsoever hath a sensitiue soule hath touching Every animal hath a sensitiue soule Therefore every animal hath touching In this Syllogisme the conclusion is immediate in regard of the subject but not in regard of the cause For in this Syllogisme the Meane is the cause of the conclusion But the two propositions are immediate both in regard of the cause as also of the subject for nothing can be alledged as a cause of
their truths Sometimes the efficient and finall causes are linked together with a long chaine As Vnder the Aequator the aire is very hot because it is very subtill The aire is very subtill because the Sunne doth rarefie it very much The Sunne rarefies the aire because the beames fall in right angles The beames fall in right angles because the Sunne is there in the Zenith Thus it is in the finall cause The Lungs draw in the aire to refresh the heat of the heart The heat of the heart is refreshed to keepe the Temperature The Temperature is kept to preserue life So many causes so many demonstrations But the last where also the chiefest and last cause stands for the Meane is the noblest of all because it can no further be demonstrated and the two propositions are immediate every manner of way The fifth Chapter A speciall note to know a perfect Demonstration OF all the markes of a perfect Demonstration this is the most evident when it may be converâ—ed or reduced to a definition For we haue said heretofore that the definition of a proper accident is compounded of three parts namely L. 2. c. 8. of the Genus of that which is defined and of the proper subject and of the cause thereof As the definition of Death is the destruction of the life of the creature by the extinguishing of vitall heat Out of this definition a demonstration may be framed making the Subject of this accident to be the subject of the conclusion the Genus to be the attribute and the cause the Meane As thus Whensoever the vitall heat is extinguished life is destroyed But in a living creature the vitall heat is extinguished Therefore in a living creature life is destroyed The same may be said of these definitions following Sleepe is the heavinesse of a living creature by the cessation of the common sense Thunder is a noyse in the clouds by the breaking out of the fire The sixth Chapter Of an Imperfect Demonstration WEE haue shewed that a perfect demonstration is that which proveth by the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute that the attribute of the conclusion agrees with the subject If any of these perfections be wanting the demonstration is the weaker and lesse perfect If the Meane be not the next cause of the attribute but onely a remote cause then is the demonstration weaker and more imperfect And such demonstrations for the most part conclude negatiuely For example Where there is no opposition of contrary qualities there is no death But in the heavens there is no opposition of contrary qualities Therefore in heaven there is no death Or He that is of a cold temperature will never be bald But Eunuches are of a cold temperature Therefore Eunuches will never be bald In these demonstrations the propositions are not immediate For the Meane is not the next cause of the attribute To haue no contrary qualities is not the next cause of not dying but a remote cause for the next cause of not dying in mans body is the continual preservation of the humors in an equall temperature and the cause hereof is to haue no contrarietie or combate betweene the elementarie qualities in the bodie Thus the cause why Eunuches become not bald is become the radicall humor of the haires is not spent and the remote cause is because they haue but little heat In these demonstrations the propositions are not immediate for the Meane is not the next cause of the attribute And though the propositions be immediate yet if the Meane be not the cause but the effect of the attribute then it shall be a lesse perfect demonstration proving not the effect by the cause but the cause by the effect This kinde of demonstration shewes not why the conclusion is but onely that it is As All that loue God are beloved of God But all that haue faith in Christ loue God Therefore all that haue faith in Christ are beloved of God The Meane is to loue God which is not the cause but the effect of the loue which God beareth vnto vs which loue is the attribute of the conclusion in this demonstration wherein the cause is proved by the effect whereas in a perfect demonstration we proue effects by their causes Therefore this imperfect demonstration proveth onely that the thing is but sheweth not why it is The effect may very well be the cause of knowing but not of being As the smoake which we see come out of a chimney may be a cause to make vs know that there is fire in the house but it is not the cause of the fire but onely the effect And the vnequall beating of the pulse is not the cause of the Ague but it is a cause which makes vs know that such a one hath an Ague ¶ The sixt Booke OF SOPHISMES OR FALLACIES The first Chapter Of Fallacies in words ALL Fallacies or Sophismes committed in disputing are either in the Words or in the Matter Fallacies in words are of six kindes 1. Aequivocation 2. Amphibologie 3. Deceipt by Composition 4. Deceipt by Division 5. Deceipt in the Accent or Pronuntiation 6. And deceipt in the Figure of the word 1. Of Aequivocation Decipt by Aequivocation is when the Meane is a doubtfull word taken in the proposition one way and in the assumption another way As That which hath neither beginning nor ending God created not The roundnesse of the Heavens hath neither beginning nor ending Therfore the roundnesse of the Heavens God created not In the proposition beginning and ending is taken for continuance of time but in the assumption it is taken for the beginning and ending of a figure Or thus He that saith that thou liuest saith true He that saith that thou art a goose saith that thou livest Therefore he that saith that thou art a goose saith true In the proposition it is meant of an expresse saying but in the assumption of a saying by consequence Thus a man of great capacitie may be taken for a learned man and sometimes for one whose stomacke is able to containe much wine The same fallacie may be committed also when a word is otherwise taken in the propositions then in the conclusion 2. Of Amphibologie Amphibologie is an ambiguous constructioÌ„ making the sense doubtfull As Faith alone iustifieth It cannot be knowne whether the meaning be that faith being alone justifieth or els that faith justifieth onely In the first sense it is false for faith alone without good works is no true faith and by consequent justifieth not But in the second sense it is true that faith onely justifieth because it onely hath the propertie to justifie So it is true in one sense that the eye alone seeth but it is false in another sense that the eye seeth alone For an eye that is out of the head seeth not 3. The fallacie in Composition The fallacie in Composition is when things are taken as conjoyned which cannot be true but in