calculation and make a trial of the matter whether that the Altitude be the same every where and at every time I will give them here Examples from the Observations of Tycho who hath observed the refractions of the Sun and Moon at every degree of their Altitude And because that the Observations of Lansbergius because that he observed them in a different Air if that he observed them at all differ from those of Tycho's I will also add them The TABLE of Refractions The degrees of Altitude The Refraction of the Sun according to Tycho The Refraction of the Moon according to Tycho The Refraction of the Sun and Moon according to Lansbergius Degrees Minute 1. Minute 1. Minute 1. 1. 0 34 33 34  1 26 25 26  2 20 20 21  3 17 17 18  4 15 15 15 45 5 14 14 14 0 6 13 14 12 30 7 12 13 11 15 8 11 12 10 5 9 10 11 9 5 10 10 11 8 15 11 9 10 7 35 12 9 10 7 5 13 8 9 6 40 14 8 8 6 19 15 7 8 6 0 16 7 7 5 42 17 6 7 5 24 18 6 6 5 7 19 5 6 4 50 20 4 5 4 33 21 4 4 4 16 22 3 3 4 0 23 3 3 3 44 24 3 3 3 28 25 2 2 3 12 26 2 2 2 56 27 2 2 2 40 28 2 2 2 24 29 2 2 2 9 30 1 1 1 54 31 1 1 1 39 32 1 1 1 24 33 1 1 1 9 34 1 1 0 55 35 1 1 0 41 36 1 1 0 27 37 0 1 0 13 38 0 1 0 0 The refractions of the Sun and Moon according to Lansbergius and Tycho Lansbergius placeth both the same refractions of the Sun and Moon but Tycho maketh them somewhat divers viz. about the Horizon he maketh the refractions of the Sun greater than those of the Moon then the fifth degree of Altitude he maketh them equal from this then at length he maketh the refractions of the Moon a little bigger than those of the Sun Indeed I confess my self ignorant of the cause of this except it be to be ascribed to the weakness of the light of the Moon Moreover Tycho omitted the second Minutes which yet should not be omitted if that they come near to 60 because that there is use of them in the calculation of the altitude of the Air. Now you must know that the refractions of all the Stars are the same or else that the difference is insensible viz. in one Air But if that the Air be thick the refractions will be greater An Example of it is this whereof a cause hath not yet been rendred sufficiently hitherto by any The Dutch Wintering in Nova Zembla beheld the Sun after the night of some Months when that as yet the Limbus or edge of the Sun was yet beneath the Horizon four degrees at least therefore the refraction n f L is 4 deg 30 min. Then at length when that it was depressed beneath the Horizon 3 degrees 40 minutes they saw him elevated above the Horizon 30 degrees viz. his upper Limbus therefore the refraction m r L we conceive m r S to fall beneath the Horizon and r L g to be 30 min. shall be 4 deg 11 min. and L L T 90 deg 30 min. From hence shall be found the altitude of the Air L f and the reason of the density of that Air at Nova Zembla which yet was serene at the time of the Observation Now the Altitude is found much greater than the other refractions admit of viz. of almost two miles neither is it corrected by the position of a greater thickness of Air as shall be shewed in the following Proposition by reason that the Angle T f L cannot be greater than 85 deg 30 min. if that n f L is 4 deg 30 min. it becometh greater if that d f be placed less than 2 miles Therefore we do not undeservedly doubt of the truth of the observation of the Mariners seeing that no like Example hath been observed yea the contrary hath been observed in the same place See Chap. 26. Proposit uit Moreover no reason can be rendred that in those places after so long an absence of the Sun the Air should be higher than at the time wherein after so long a stay the Sun departed seeing that rather the contrary doth follow viz. the Air becoming more thick and lower by reason of contraction if that any one will urge the altitude of the Air to be inconstant Yet when I more accurately weigh all the matters three things fall in with me by which that apparancy and great refraction may be salved for seeing that the Master or Pilot was skilful in Astronomy and also that they saw the Sun elevated above the Horizon in which he was yet depressed therefore we ought not to deny the Observation neither ought we to be suspicious concerning an Errour in the numeration of the days by reason of that long night for when that they returned to their own Countrey they reckoned the same day of the year that their Country-men reckoned which they could not have done if that before they had made a false reckoning of the days For if that we will admit so great an altitude of the Air such as the refractions of the temperate and torrid Zones do not admit of we must say that the Air is every where the same both in the torrid and temperate Zone as it is in the frigid but the supream Region of the Air both in the torrid and temperate Zone is so subtile that it maketh no refraction but only the middle Region Whence it is no wonder if that the refractions in the torrid and temperate Zone be lesser for although the Air be lower that causeth them for which cause the refraction ought to be greater yet it s far more rare than the other Air. But yet an Objection may be made against this viz. that the observation of the Mariners was made in a serene Air as they themselves testifie Unto this I answer That yet it seemeth not so probable that the Air should be so subtile as in the torrid and temperate Zone when that the Sky is most serene Secondly it may be said That that Air of the frigid Zone when that the Sun after a long absence returneth unto it is first attenuated in the superior Region and the middle is yet somewhat more thick and therefore the Sun was seen through two refractions as the Stars through the Air and a Glass Now a double refraction doth far more depress the Star beneath the Horizon than a simple and so the altitude of the Air the space of one mile or ¾ Neither may you here object why the same doth not happen at that time when that the Sun departeth from the Air and maketh the beginning of the â—ong Night For then it is probable that there is less difference in the thickness of the Air by reason of the long
Horizon but oblique Yet it is not general that the wind proceedeth in a perpendicular way to the Horizon because that oftentimes in the Air transverse Blasts are found So we see that Smoak coming forth of a Chimney is not carried by the wind towards one quarter but part of it is carried unto other quarters Proposition XII Why the Winds blow by an interrupted force so that sometimes they cease and other some as it were with redoubled strength they return with the greater importunity And why that they seem more continually to blow on the Sea so that it is discovered less calm The Winds 〈◊〉 blow by an interrupted force I suppose the reason to be that the cause that moveth or stirreth up the Winds continueth not always but that some space is required unto the collection of such a quantity which by such a vehemency may break through the Air and therefore because that Exhalations are more continual in the Air and the motion is less impeded there the calm in the Ocean is less discovered although that it be not wholly removed Proposition XIII Why no Wind bloweth perpendicularly from the Air unto the places of the Earth Concerning this question See Aristotle lib. 2. chap. 9. of Meteors Aristotle in his Second Book Chap. 9. of Meteors treateth very absurdly so that the Peripateticks are not agreeing concerning his Opinion neither shall I in this place relate their Sentiments The cause seemeth easily to be explained viz. that the Air being thrust downwards towards the Center of the Earth cannot break through this way by reason that other vapours are expelled or born upwards and therefore the overmuch resistance of the Air which is directly scituated under the Air moved causeth the protrusion to be made to the sides of the place in which the violence beginneth Which is therefore the more probable seeing that the matter of the Wind is for the most part more light than that Air and that is more rarified than that which is more near unto the Earth Proposition XIV Why Westerly-winds are less frequent than Easterly-winds See Proposition 10. The cause of this is manifest from the Tenth Proposition where we have made the Sun to be the first cause of Winds who so rarifieth the Air proceeding from the East to the West and therefore the Air is more thrust towards the West Therefore that this general cause may be impeded of necessity very many Exhalations must consist in the Western quarters which doth happen less frequently Proposition XV. Why the Northern and Eastern-winds are more impetuous and stormy and on the contrary the Southern and Western more relaxed and weak The Northern and Eastern Winds more stormy than the Southern and VVestern The cause is by reason that the Northern Air is more thick by reason of Cold and the Southern in our Zone by reason of the greater dissipation caused by the Sun and Heat is more rarified Now by how much the Air is more rarified by so much the lesser is it carried with an impetuous force Yet you must know that the South-winds are cold dry and violent in the Temperate Zone or the Artick Zone opposed to ours no less than the Northern-winds are unto us but the Eastern-wind is more rigid or more intense for another cause viz. because that it ariseth for the most part from the refraction of the Air made by the Sun which being continually carried from the East to the West the Air also is thrust forwards with the greater violence from the East to the West But it is probable that other causes may accede that may either help or obstruct that violence Proposition XVI Why the Southernly and Westernly-winds are found more hot than the Easternly and Northernly which have a wonderful power of causing Cold in respect of them The Southern and VVestern Winds are found more hot than the Easternly and VVesternly So this Question is wont vulgarly to be propounded yet we must know that in must not generally be understood of all places but only concerning the places of our Zone For in the other temperate Zone scituated towards the South from the Aequator the contrary holdeth true because that in these places the Northern-winds are hot or warm and the Southern are found more cold And so the nature of the thing and the condition of the cause required For the reason why the South-wind is discovered more warm to us and the North more cold proceedeth hence viz. that the South-winds come from a quarter and places more near unto the torrid Zone or way of the Sun but the Northern places more remote from that way of the Sun that is from more cold places But the contrary is found in places scituated towards the Antartick Pole from the Aequator because that the Northern-winds approach to them from the way of the Sun the Southern from the places more near the Pole But as concerning the Eastern and Western-winds I must answer otherwise neither doth that diversity of the places of our Zone and that of the opposite here take place Therefore first it is said in the preceding Proposition that the Western-winds are less frequent in all places the cause of which is the same with that by reason of which the Occidental winds are discovered more warm viz. because that for the most part they blow in the Night and after the setting of the Sun where the Air that is thrust forwards towards our place is more calid or less frigid than the Air of our place which is more remote from the West than that which lieth between the Sun and our place There is also another cause which also is of force in the difference between the Northern and Southern-winds viz. that the Western-winds blow with less violence and not so intense but with some relaxation Now it is known that any Air or Wind is discovered so much the more cold by how much it bloweth with the greater or more intense force although in truth it be no hotter or colder which is evident by our expiration which we can exhale either cold or hot Proposition XVII Why Mariners from the sight of a Cloud especially such a one that is of a pale or duskish colour predict a wind from that quarter also to declare the other signs of future winds Mariners from the sight of a Cloud predict a Wind from that quarter A twofold Reason may be rendred for either Clouds of that colour do shew that by and by they shall be dissipated and dissolved into Blasts or else the Clouds sinking by their own weight and segregated from other Clouds press down the Air beneath them and so cause it to blow Concerning the peculiar Clouds termed by the Dutch the Bulls-eye see the following Chapter 1. The Sun appearing spotted in his rising and lying obscured under a pale or black Cloud foretelleth either showers or winds 2. If that the Sun at his rising appeareth concave so that it shineth
distance from the place assumed the Spring when he goeth from a point of moderate distance towards the very Vertex of the Pole or to the point of the Ecliptick which is Vertical to the place or to the Parallel of the place the Summer where the Sun goeth from this other point of middle distance to a point of greatest distance that is the first degree of Capricorn or Cancer 2. In the places of the Aequator it self the Sun no day of the year remaineth above the Horizon more or less hours than twelve and so many beneath the Horizon In other places of the Torrid Zone one hour or an hour and an half at the most viz. in the extream places of this Zone about the Tropicks of Cancer and Capricorn when the day is at the longest the Sun remaineth above the Horizon twelve hours and in the shortest day about eleven hours and in the intermedial days that time of the stay of the Sum above and beneath the Horizon doth not much differ from twelve hours And therefore this is the cause that the nights are not without cold and the heat of the day continueth not long about the eveningtide 3. In the night time the Sun is profoundly depressed beneath the Horizon for that he illustrateth the Air with none of his rayes nay not reflex This is the cause that most dark nights are there and the cold of the night is augmented the Air is condensed and contracteth it self and being cold it descends towards the earth by its own ponderosity Moreover in a very short time about the space of half an hour before the rising of the Sun and after his setting those places have the light and heat of the Twilight 4 The Moon almost after the same manner as the Sun ascends directly from the Horizon towards the Meridian of those places yet a little more obliquely because it departeth from the Ecliptick and therefore towards the Torrid Zone about five degrees and it remaineth after the same manner as the Sun a little above twelve hours above the Horizon and is depressed beneath it almost so many hours and that profoundly as we have spoken of the Sun Therefore with her direct rayes or those near to the perpendicular she will augment the warmness of the night especially when she is Vertical to any place and diminish it by her recess but by reason of her short stay above the Horizon the effect of it is little discerned in any place except when it is Vertical to it 5. All the Stars arise and set in places nigh the Aequator but those Stars which are near the Pole in places more remote from the Aequator do not arise and those are but very few and therefore they can cause little heat and light and that also insensible in the Air. 6. In many places of the Torrid Zone as in India and its Isles in the Tongue of Africa and in Mexico the earth is Sulphureous which sendeth forth more calid vapours whence it communicateth a certain heat to the Air and a peculiar property In some places it is sandy as in the North part of Africa lying in the Torrid Zone in part of Lybia and the Land of the Negroes in many places of Arabia in Peru and in the places between Peru and Brazilia whence in these places a very great heat is raised by the Sun because the particles of the Sand do very long retain the heat received from the Sun and soon communicate the same to the vicine Air. In other places the Rivers are many and in those Sandy ones few there are many in Abyssine in Guiney Congo India and in Brazilia hence humid vapours are raised which do very much blunt the force of the Suns rayes and render his heat more tolerable 7. The most places of the Torrid Zone have the Sea adjacent as India and its Isles the Tongue of Africa Guiney Brazilia Peru Mexico some places of the Torrid Zone are Mediterranean as the more inward Africa the Regions between Peru and Brazilia whence it cometh to pass that in those places the heat and drought is greater and in some or most of them the Air is more moist and less fervent then can be caused by the Sun except other causes happen 8. Most of the Regions of the Torrid Zone seeing that they are almost encompassed by the Sea have in the middle places more or lesser ridges of exceeding high Mountains as India and its Isles the Tongue of Africa and Peru These rows of Mountains do very much vary the light heat and rayes of those places somewhere they hinder the Oriental rayes of the Sun otherwhere the Occidental Moreover the humid vapours condensed in the Air are moved to the Vertices of these Mountains as we have shewed in the twentieth Chapter whence rains and clouds proceed by which the heat and light of the Sun is very much obstructed and the Celestial cause of the Seasons is disturbed There are few of the places of the Torrid Zone which want those ridges as the inward Africa Mexico and the like 9. The effects of the Winds in the Torrid Zone are various and notable for a general wind blowing from the side Plagas of the East or from the East continually towards the West refrigerateth the Maritim places which regard the East as Brazilia the Oriental Coast of Africa but not so to those towards the West as Guiney Congo Angola and the Coasts of Peru. Some winds are appropriated as the South in Peru which winds dispel vapours towards the Plaga in which they blow Some are fixed winds of which we have largely treated in the one and twentieth Chapter Now these winds do very much disturb the Celestial cause of the Seasons for they are almost as equally constant and observe order as the motions of the Heaven it self They bring down the Air compel the vapours towards the tops of the Mountains and by other Modes alter the Seasons Ten Anniversary rains are in many places of the Torrid Zone and take away the Celestial cause seeing that they are as equally constant as the motion of the Sun it self For those err who suppose that this our Sublunary Orb observeth all with inconstancy and without order and that the Celestial only have a constant motion Seeing that the causes hitherto spoken of are so various to be able to cause the heat and the properties of the Seasons and in one place some are from other causes in another others are of force or concur in divers Seasons of the year or mutually impede one another hence we discover why the cause and condition of the Seasons of the Torrid Zone is so various Proposition XI How the Spring Summer Autumn and Winter Terrestrial do behave themselves and in what Months of the year they commence in the divers places of the Torrid Zone Of the beginning of the Seasons in places in the Torrid Zone We have said before and especially in the second Proposition that
hindred doth flow from more high places to places more low If therefore the place about the Shore was not so high as in the middle of the Ocean part of the Sea would flow from the middle of the Ocean to the Shore and would neither consist or be calm which yet is not found in the tranquillity of the Air. 2. If that the Ocean far remote from the Shores were more high than the Sea at the Shore that Altitude would be discovered a far longer interval than a Spherical Superficies doth admit of yea it would be seen from the same distance from which the parts of the Ocean intercepted between that Altitude and the Shore are seen And experience testifieth that it cannot be beheld from a greater distance but that by degrees the more remote part is detected after the more near when we come to Mediterranean places to the Shore And by how much any part is more vicine to the shore by so much it is first or by a larger interval beheld from the shore Therefore the part of the Ocean removed from the shore is not higher than that part that is nigh unto it Wherefore the Ocean is of the same Altitude every where both in the middle and at the shore and not higher than the Earth 3. Mariners in the midst of the Ocean and deep Sea although they apply their Mathematical Instruments yet find it no higher there than in the parts near the shore which certainly could not be if that the Sea had any Altitude elevated as a Tower or Mountain For as by Instruments we find the Altitude of Towers or Mountains above the subjected parts of the Earth so also if that there were any Altitude of the middle Ocean above the vicine parts it could not be obstructed and avoid the subtilty of Instruments 4. Also here and there in the middle of the Ocean are found Islands and that in great number in some parts which are near to the Continents or great Islands Therefore the middle of the Ocean is not higher than the Earth because it is not higher than the Shores of those Islands 5. No cause can be shew'd why Water in the middle of the Ocean should be higher and not flow into the Chanels of Rivers if that their Waters be more depresâ—ed For by experience we find that Water any where scituated moveth to the vicine parts and these are less high which have been the cause of so many inundations From these I think we sufficiently collect that the Waters of the Ocean are not higher than the shoars of the Land Seeing therefore the Altitude of very few shoars is elevated little more than the vicine Mediterranean Land and in most lesser seeing that the Altitude of the Lands from the shoars to the Mediterranean places increaseth and riseth into Hills thence we conclude that the superficies of the Ocean is not higher than the superficies of the Land Now that the Altitude of the Land from the shoars to the Mediterranean places augmenteth or that the Mediterranean places are higher than the shoars is proved from the flux of Rivers most of which arise in Mediterranean places and flow to the Ocean So then at least the Mediterranean parts are somewhat more elevated than the shoars because the flux is from these unto them for Water floweth from the more high parts to places more inferiour Now that some are somewhat depressed lower than the Water we shall not go about to deny but they are either defended by the height of their shoars or by banks or other interposed earth Now these Banks are raised for the most part not because of the great Altitude of the Ocean being tranquillous and in its natural state but by reason of its impetuous motion caused by the Winds or from some other cause Corollary Corollary Therefore they are deceived who will have the Waters of the Ocean to be higher than the Earth and flie to a miraculous providence by which the inundation of the Ocean on the Land and drowning of the World is hindred and restrained For we have shewed that the superficies of the Water and Earth are one and almost the same to wit spherical and that many parts of the Earth at least the shoars have a greater Altitude than the middle of the Ocean and that this is the cause that the Ocean cannot overflow the Lands Which greater Altitude if it be elevated in some shoars the Banks being broken or the Water being augmented or forced to them in great abundance cause inundations Neither is it altogether impossible or contrary to nature that the whole Earth should be covered with Water as we shall shew in the end of the Chapter Proposition III. Why the Sea being beheld from the shoar seemeth to arise in a greater Altitude and tumor by how much it is more remote The middle of the Ocean by some said to be many miles higher than the Shoars It is a fallacy of the sight or of the estimating faculty which hath brought many into this errour so that they have endeavoured to defend that the middle of the Ocean is many miles higher than the Shoars But it is a wonder that none of them have taken notice of daily Experiments in the ordinary course of our life in which this fallacy is sufficiently manifest For if that we look on any Pavement or floor stretched at length or any row of Pillars the more remote parts of the Pavement will appear more high than the vicine parts so that from thence from our place to the most remote the Floor will seem by degrees more and more to elevate which yet notwithstanding it is every where of the same Altitude After the same mode it is with the Waters of the Ocean for if on the Shoar you use a Geodetical Instrument commodious to measure places withal you shall find no elevation of the remote part of the Ocean above the Shoar but rather a little depression so that the Waters sink beneath the Horizon of the Shoars Those that are versed in the Opticks declare the cause of the fallacy Let A be the Eye See Scheme and let it survey the pavement or superficies of the Water extended at length unto the long space a e. Let the Angle a A e be divided into equal parts or four Angles which are e A d d A c c A b b A a from the right drawn A b A c A d to wit the more remote shall be far more great as appeareth from the Diagram viz. e d is greater than d e and d e greater than b c and b c than a h. Although these parts are very unequal yet they will appear equal because they appear under the equal Angles a A b b A c c A d d A c and the Estimative faculty will judge them to be removed an equal distance from the Eye A in which there is a great deception and therefore will judge the lines A b A c A d
vicine place is to be found whereby it may come unto those Northern Regions Seeing that therefore this flux is perpetual neither doth the water come by a manifest way unto those Regions whence the flux is made therefore it seemeth necessary to conclude that the waters come through subterraneous passages unto those Northern Regions and so there to be effused from the holes of the Channel as from a spring and that the water moveth hence towards the South There falleth in another cause taken from the former For the water of the Ocean in the Torrid Zone is more heavy than that in the Northern places by reason of the great abundance of Salt as we have proved in the Eighth and Twelfth Proposition Therefore the water or Ocean in the Torrid Zone doth more press through the Orifices of the Subterranean passages than in the Northern places and therefore in these places the water less resisting suffereth the water to flow from the Orifices of the Channels Unto this I answer That that flux of the Ocean is not only from the North as the Objection seemeth to inferr and as some especially the Ancients conceived of it who would have the water to flow in four Channels from the very Pole as also some Geographical Maps do exhibit it neither is it continual but is observed by reason of the frequency of Northern Winds moreover the great and perpetual abundance of Snow and Rain in those places augmenteth the water and causeth it to flow towards the South Add likewise that in other parts another motion of the Ocean is found concerning which see the following Chapter 3. It seemeth not absurd but rather most true that all the Fountains of Rivers taken together disburthening themselves into the Ocean are the very Fountains of the Ocean For seeing that in perpetual progress of time so great an abundance of water floweth from them into the Ocean questionless the water cometh from the Ocean to the very Springs and Channels of the Rivers partly through the Subterranean passages and partly by Rains 4. It may seem to prove that the Fountains of the Ocean may be in the very Channel because that in the bottom of the Ocean in some parts sweet or fresh water is found which could not be but by some Fountains flowing in the bottom Linschaten relateth that in Ormus fresh water is drawn by divers in the Ocean at the depth of four or five Orgya and the like Fountains are found in other parts of the Ocean and Bays Unto this I answer That few such Springs have yet been found which suffice not the vast Ocean Neither do we dispute concerning these Fountains as we have said before Hence it is manifest that in some sort it is true and we may well say that the Ocean hath Springs but not in that sense that we are wont to speak concerning the Springs of Rivers and in which we would have our Proposition to be taken Hence also it is manifest what we ought to think concerning that Question viz. Whether the Sea is always one and the same and perpetually so remaineth or whether it be another thing whose parts are perpetually consumed and generated again Proposition VIII The saltness of the Waters proceedeth from the particles of Salt which are mixed with it but whence they may exist or are so augmented is the doubt Of the Saltness of the Sea-water Experlence proveth the first member of the Proposition by which it is commonly known that Salt is made of Sea-water by decoction of the water or by the heat of the Sun or the fervour of the Fire In Germany and other places the water is separated by the help of the Fire In France the greater heat of the Sun performeth the same the Ocean being let into certain Trenches made in which in the space of some Months the water being exhaled by the force of the Sun Of Salt and of what made concreted and hard Salt is found On the shoars of many Regions as of England and other parts plenty of Bay-Salt is found the Sea-water continually overflowing those shoars leaveth daily some particles or humors from which the water exhaleth and concrete Salt is left whose blackness is taken away by boyling although it be washed away and dissolved from many Coasts by the violence of the Ocean which is the cause that it is not found on all Coasts Seeing therefore that this Experiment is common Aristotle had small reason to alledge a false Experiment concerning a waxen Vessel let down into the Sea Hence it is manifest that the proximate cause of the Saltness of the Sea-water or the true subject of this saltness is the Saline particles which are contained in that water Therefore the Aristotelians with their Master spake improperly and obscuredly without cause when they defend and say That the saltness of the Sea proceedeth from the adustion of the Sea caused by the Sun or from the adust particles But of this more anon The chief difficulty and controversie is concerning the other member of the Proposition Whence these Salt particles of the Ocean exist Aristotle supposeth that dry exhalations or fumes all which he saith are of an adust and Saline nature elevated from the Earth are mixed with humid vapours and when that these have met together in Rain they fall with these into the Sea and that thence proceedeth the saltness and Salt particles in the Sea See Aristotle lib. 2. chap. 7. and on this account he seemeth to defend this Opinion because that from thence he may render a reason why the Sea is always salt But other Peripateticks will have it and so do endeavour to draw Aristotle to their part that this saltness is in the Sea it self by reason that it is perpetually scorched by the heat of the Sun a sign of which is that the water is found by so much the less salt by how much it is more deep or remote from the superficies for in the superficies we discover it to be most salt Both these Opinions are obstructed with great difficulties and absurdities so that it seemeth wonderful that the minds of Philosophers and Learned men could acquiesce in them First the opinion of Aristotle is thus obstructed that Salt-rain should be found in the Ocean which never yet was found to be void of all tast of salt Secondly the Sea should be less salt when it raineth not for a long time the contrary of which yet is found The other Opinion hath these difficulties 1. It is false that the waters of the Ocean are found the less salt by how much they are nigh to the bottom for there are few places viz. in those bottoms where Springs of fresh water do flow 2. Experience testifieth that fresh water although long exposed to the Sun or heat of the Fire yet doth not become salt This Objection Scaliger endeavoureth to avoid by an over-nice subtilty for he saith that this hapneth in these Observations by reason of
Salt but this is a deceitful sign The 4th Cause 4. The fourth Cause of the unequal saltness is the frequency or scarcity of Rains unto which we may add Snow and in the Northern places Snow and Rain is frequent in the places of the Torrid Zone they are less frequent in some parts of the year and in othersome they are almost continual And therefore in these places in the pluvial Months the water of the Ocean is not so salt on the shoar and hath less Salt in it than in the dry Months Yea in many Regions of the Coast of Malabar the Ocean is fresh in the pluvial Months by reason of the abundance of water that floweth from the top of the Mountain Gatis and falleth into the Sea for this very reason in divers Seasons of the year the same Ocean is of a various saltness yet because in the Northern places the Rains and Snows are continual throughout the whole year therefore this Sea is less salt than in the Torrid Zone The 5th Cause 5. The fifth Cause is the dissimilary solution or unequal faculty of the Water to dissolve this Salt and unite it to its self for hot water sooner uniteth Salt unto it self than cold Water although therefore in the Northern places of the Ocean the shoars and Channels of the same contain more or the like quantity of Salt that those places of the Torrid Zone do yet because the water is there more cold it is not so able to dissolve and unite the Salt to it self so subtily us the water in the Torrid Zone which is more hot The 6th Cause 6. The sixth cause is the exoneration of many and great Rivers into the Sea but this cause only taketh place in the parts of the Ocean that are vicine to the shoars but is not discovered in the remote parts So Mariners affirm that the Ocean on the Coast of Brasilia where the Silver-River disburtheneth it self loseth it saltness and affordeth fresh waters fifteen miles distant from the shoar The same is observed of the African Ocean on the Coasts of Congi where the River Zaire exonerateth it self and of many more Rivers Unto these add runing Fountains in some parts of the bottom of the Ocean These are the Causes which seem to concur to the variety and diversity of saltness in divers parts of the Ocean from which the saltness of every one of the Seas may be explained From whence also it is easy to give an account why the water of the German and Northern Ocean is less apt to separate Salt from it self by coction than the water of the Spanish Ocean the Canary Isles and that of Cape Verd whence the Dutch fetch Salt in great abundance and transport it into the Northern Regions viz. this Ocean is more near the Torrid Zone and receiveth water from the Ocean of the Torrid Zone the other is more remote from the Frigid Zone yet I cannot deny the constitution of the Channels themselves to be more or less saline The Sea-water at Guinee in the Ethiopick Ocean affordeth Salt at one coction as white as snow such as neither the Spanish Ocean nor any other in Europe do produce at one coction or boyling Proposition XI Why Rain-water in the middle of the Ocean is found sweet but the water which we separate from the Marine or Salt-water either by decoction or distillation is yet notwithstanding found salt when yet the Rain-water proceedeth from the Vapours exhaled from the Sea Fresh-water abstracted from Salt-water The Learned Chymists or true Naturalists have hitherto laboured in vain that they might find out an Art by which they might distill and abstract fresh water from the water of the Ocean which would be of great advantage but as yet their Labours have proved fruitless for although as well in the decoction as distillation Salt may be left in the bottom of the Vessel yet the water separated by decoction as well as distillation is yet found salt and not fit for men to drink which seemeth wonderful unto those that are ignorant of the cause Yet Chymistry that is true Philosophy hath taught the reason for by the benefit of this we know that there is a twofold salt in Bodies or two kinds of salt which although they agree in tast yet they much differ in other qualities one of these Artists term fixed the other volatile salt The fixed salt by reason of its gravity is not elevated in distillation but remaineth in the bottom of the Vessel but the volatile salt is full of spirit and indeed is nothing else but a most subtile spirit that is elevated by a very light fire and therefore in the distillation ascendeth with the fresh water and is more firmly united by reason of the subtilty of the Attoms neither is this volatile salt found only with fixed salt in Sea-water but almost in all bodies as Chymistry proveth by experience but in some in a greater and in othersome in a lesser quantity in a greater quantity in sharp tasted Herbs in a lesser in oily Herbs Therefore difficulty consisteth in the separation of this salt spirit or volatile salt from the water But why the pluvial water in the midst of the Sea is no less fresh than on the Land seeing that yet it is generated by abstraction of the exhalations of the Ocean caused by the fervour of the Sun or from some subterraneous fire which evaporation doth little differ from distillation The cause seemeth to be Fourfold 1. A slow operation by which the tenuous part is only elevated from the Ocean which although it containeth a saline volatile spirit yet it hath it in less quantity than if that this exhalation were caused by a more forcible heat 2. The long way that this vapour passeth through before that it arriveth unto that Region of the Air where it is condensated into rain in passage it is possible that the saline spirit is by degrees separated from the watery particles 3. The admixture of other watery particles existing in the air 4. A Refrigeration Coition and condensation of the vapour for these exhalations exhaled from the Ocean by degrees are more and more refrigerated and being conjoyned with other obvious and admixed vapours they condense into a more thick vapour or cloud in this Refrigeration and condensation or coition of the saline spirit with the fiery particles they fly into the more exalted part of the Air. Now why the same is not performed in distillation where the vapours exalted are also condensed the cause is 1. That by reason of the small passage the saline spirit is as yet over straitly conjoyned to the watery particles 2. That the vapour restrained in the vessel admitteth not a free passage to the evolant spirit Proposition XII Sea-water is more ponderous than fresh water and the water of one Sea is more heavy than another Sea water more heavy than fresh water The cause is manifest from what hath been said
flux or deflux yea those terms are not apt enough but it is better to call it an Intumescency and Detumescency so that by these peculiar appellations the quality of the flux or motion may be distinguished from the motion or flux it self For the Sea always floweth from the East to the West and only appeareth to re-flow by reason that when in one place there is a greater quantity of water and that it floweth with vehemency to a certain place afterwards in another time this impetus ceaseth But it is therefore termed a reflux because that the Sea seemeth in Bays and Shores to draw near and depart According to the extension of bays and shores which hapneth not by reason of the quality of the Motion it self but by reason of the scituation of Coasts and Channels viz. that the Water doth return back to a contrary quarter but that the Sea falleth down this proceedeth not from the scituation of the Coasts but from the condition of the place it self Neither ought or can the motion of the Sea be regarded from the appulse to the shore for whatsoever the motion of the Sea be or unto what quarter soever it be made the flux is always towards the shore which is by reason of the fluid nature of the water Now seeing that both the flux or reflux or in the intumescency and detumescency the Sea is moved towards the same quarter viz. from the East to the West and doth not re-flow again is collected from hence First that in the Ocean removed from the shores under the Torrid Zone no other motion is found than that by which it is carried from the East to the West Secondly In the Streights which directly extend from East to West and in which the parts of the Ocean are joyned as the Streights of Magellan Manillan Java and others amongst the Indian Isles In these Streights I say the Sea indeed swelleth and falleth in twelve hours but yet the Sea in the detumescency doth flow back from out the Streights from the West to the East therefore another orifice of the Streight into the West which is a manifest sign that this intumescency and detumescency is not a peculiar motion but a modification of the general motion neither doth the Sea flow back into the East Therefore Scaliger and all others are deceived which here introduce a double motion replicated into it self But yet this must be understood that when we say that this motion is made from the East to the West the Cardinal quarters are not only understood but also those quarters that are collateral viz. the Sea is moved also by this flux from the Collateral quarters of the East unto the Collateral quarters of the West yea unto the North and South but not by so forcible and valid motion Proposition XI To declare the cause of the intumescency and detumescency of the Sea or the flux and reflux vulgarly so termed The cause of the flux and reflux of the Sea There is almost no phaenomenon of Nature that hath more exercised the wits of Learned men and Philosophers and that hath deluded more endeavours Some have made the Sea and Earth to be an Animal which by its inspiration and expiration hath caused the flux and reflux Others make the cause to be a great Vortex near to Norway which for six hours sucketh up the water and for so many spueth them out again Scaliger and Others supposed the Coasts especially those of America to be the cause thereof by reason that they repel the appulse of the Sea which proceedeth from the general motion But many when that they discover the connexion of this intumescency and detumescency with the motion of the Moon determined that it only depended on that But how this should be is a more than ordinary task to discover seeing that they reply nothing else but that the Moon doth attract upwards humors by an occult quality and sympathy But these are only words which signifie nothing else but that the effect is caused by the Moon after some mode that we are ignorant of but this is the mode demanded Cartesius deduceth it from his general Hypothesis after this manner Let the Diagram of the Ninth Proposition be taken See Scheme in which let A B C D be that Vortex which hath the Earth for its Center which with it and with the Moon is carried in a greater Vortex about the Sun M the Center of the Vortex E F G H the Earth 1234 the superficies of the Sea from which for the greater perspicuity we do suppose the Earth to be encompassed on every side and 5678 the superficies of the Air encompassing of the Sea Now if that there were no Moon in this Vortex the point T which is the Center of the Earth ought to be in the point M which is the Center of the Vortex but the Moon being towards B this Center of the Earth T ought to be between M and D by reason that the Celestial matter of this Vortex is somewhat more quicker moved than the Moon or the Earth which it carrieth with it Except that the point T were a little more distant from B than from D the presence of the Moon would hinder that that should not so freely flow between B and T so seeing that the place of the Earth in this Vortex is not determinated excâ—â—â— from the equality of the strength of the Celestial matter flowing about it therefore it is evident that it ought somewhat to approach towards D. And after the same mode when the Moon shall be in C the Center of the Earth ought to be between M and A and so always the Earth departeth a little from the Moon Moreover because by this means from this that the Moon is towards B not only the space through which the Celestial matter floweth between B and T but also that space through which it floweth between T and D is rendred more angust thence it followeth that this Celestial matter there floweth more swiftly and therefore doth more press both the superficies of the Air in 6 and 8 and also the superficies of the Water in 2 and 4 than if that the Moon were not in the Diameter of the Vortex B D Now seeing that both the bodies of the Air and Water are fluid and easily obnoxious to this pression they ought not to be so high above the parts of the Earth F and H as if the Moon were without this Diameter B D and so also on the contrary they ought to be higher towards G and E so that the superficies of the Water 1 and 3 and of the Air 5 and 7 do there protuberate Now because that part of the Earth which is now in F on the opposite quarter of the point B where the Sea is very little high after six hours it will be in G on the opposite Region of the point C where it is most high and after other six hours in H on the Region of
place may make the motion of the Sea fixed in another place The flux of the Sea in divers places at certain times So between the Isle Celebes and Madera when that the motion is West viz. in December January and February the Sea floweth to the South East or a more near Collateral wind than the East So at Java in the Streight Gallappa when the motion is West viz. in May the Sea floweth towards the East contrary to his general Motion At the Isle of Ceilan from the middle of March to October the Sea floweth towards the South on the rest of the Months towards the North viz. because that in those Months the North winds are frequent in others the South winds Between Cochin and Mallacca the Sea floweth with a Westernly motion from April to August contrary to the general motion towards the East then the rest of the time towards the West the winds assisting the general motion the Sea floweth here with so great a noise that those who know not the same suppose Rocks to be there against which the waters beat so for some months after the 15 of February the Sea is moved from the Maldivian Isles towards the East and India contrary to the general motion At the Coast of China and Camboja in October November and December the Sea is moved towards the North-West but in January towards the South-West with a very swift course to the Sands de Champa so that they seem to exceed the celerity of a stone that is slinged At Pulo Cato even unto Varella on the coast of Camboja when motions or winds do not blow the swift motion of the Sea is towards the South but the motions or winds move towards another quarter On the Coast of the Gulph of Bengala from Patana to the Promontory of Malacca in November and December a swift course of the Sea is observed towards the South In a motion or wind from China to Malacca in June July and August there is a vehement motion of the Sea from Pulo Cato to Pulo Cambir on the Coast of Camboja Many more Examples but less accurately consigned are to be read in the Journals of the Mariners At the Coast of Aguada de san Bras not far from the Promontory of Good Hope this is peculiarly observed that the Sea is always moved from the East to the West towards the land so much the more vehemently by how much the Occidental wind opposite unto it is more violent Questionless some adjacent Coast higher than it is the cause of it Proposition XXXI The circular motions of the Sea are threefold The cirçular motions of the Sea termed Whirlpools and Vortices are threefold For some only move the water in a round othersome suck in the water and in certain hours let it forth again and others suck it in but cast it not forth Although without doubt there be a fourth sort in the Channel of the Sea which casteth out and sucketh not in the waters Yet I do not remember that I have read in any Author such a Vortex to be found in the Sea but many are found on the land The Chalcidican Euripus or Vortex is famous in Greece especially by reason of the Fable concerning the death of Aristotle it receiveth water at certain hours and casteth them out in others The Vortex at Norway is the most noted and greatest of all for it is related to be 13 miles in circuit in the middle of it is a Rock called Mouske This Vorago in six hours sucketh in all that approacheth near it as Water Whales laden Ships and in so many hours vomiteth them all out again with a great violence noise and circumgyration of water The cause is unknown Between Normandy and England is a Vorago or Whirlpool unto which Ships are carried with a great swiftness and being near the Whirlpool are repelled back again Proposition XXXII The motion of the Sea which we call a Concussion or Trembling cometh from a spiration or wind which moveth the Earth or Water it self and causeth it to rise Of the concâ—ssion of the Sea and its cause On the Coast of Biscay is a place which the Inhabitants call Capbreton there sometimes the Sea swelleth without any winds so that it seemeth to overflow the shore it self and on a sudden falleth low The like intumescency is found in a Lake of Scotland called Loumond moved by a subterranean wind The Portugals in Anno 1523 in the Sea of Cambaja discovered a trembling of the water for in a great calm as Maffeus writeth all winds being still the Sea on a sudden swelled from the bottom thence the Ships began to roul and to fall foul of one another to their great astonishment Now in this great confusion and disturbance some cast the lead some pumped others more wise bethought themselves of escaping and got barrels on which they might swim but on an instant it was found to be an Earthquake which thus also disturbed the Ships on the Sea as well as the Land Proposition XXXIII Why the Pacifick Ocean is more calm and without great floods or waves and why it is easily moved or rough with a wind The cause without doubt is because its motions towards the West are not hindred by the intercourse of shoars as the Atlantick Ocean is CHAP. XV. Of Lakes Pools or standing Waters and Marishes Proposition I. Definitions Of Lakes A Lake is a quantity of Water in any cavity of a Mediterranean place of a notable amplitude and tract on all sides encompassed with the Land and at the least having a moderate profundity But more properly that is termed a Lake which receiveth in and letteth forth Rivers A Pool is a small Lake Pools which doth never receive or send forth Rivers A Marish is water in a Mediterranean place Marishes here and there having the lands extant and about it or mixed with the Earth Proposition II. Lakes are fourfold Lakes are Fourfold 1. Some neither send forth or receive Rivers and such Lakes if small are termed Pools but if large they are called Lakes 2. Some send forth Rivers but receive none 3. Others receive Rivers and send forth none And 4. some both receive and send forth Rivers and some of those send forth greater than they receive some equal and some lesser Also some send forth a River almost in the same line with that which they received others in another line or to another quarter also some receive more than they send forth some more few and some equal Proposition III. To declare the generation and conservation of those Lakes which neither send forth nor receive Rivers Those Lakes are either great moderate or small Some of the moderate and small perpetually remain so in the Summer and when it hath not rained for a long space are dried up and both these are termed Pools Now it is easy to declare the generation of those that are dried up viz. the plenty of
termed Arms which proceed from a River divaricated into two Channels 7. A Fountain or Spring is water bubling and flowing forwards from a certain place of the Earth 8. A Well is when the water bubleth up but floweth not forwards Proposition II. Torrents and Rivulets may sometimes proceed from a quantity of rain and dissolved Snow From whence Torrents and Rivulets do proceed For in the Mountainous or more elevated parts of the Earth are found many Cavities small Lakes and standing Pools Now if that so great a quantity of water flow into these from the falls of Rain or Snow that they cannot well contain them they overflow and run down on the more depressed places and because that on every year this happeneth it maketh a Channel for it self but sometimes Torrents do flow without any Channel From this cause viz. Rains and the dissolution of Snow many Rivulets are made also Torrents and moderate or indifferent Rivers in those places which have ridges of Mountains in a long tract as the Procurrent of Africa India Peru Sumatra and the like And these Rivulets flow neither in the Summer nor in the night but only in the day Proposition III. Most Rivulets proceed from Fountains But Rivers of a great magnitude have their Original either from the congress of many Rivulets and indifferent Rivers or flow from Lakes and Marshes For no Rivers of any considerable magnitude as the Albis the Rhine do flow from one Fountain but exist from many small Springs or Lakes Rivulets proceed from Fountains But these proceeding from Lakes are augmented by the accession of other Rivers The River Volga or Rha receiveth two hundred and more partly Rivulets and partly indifferent Rivers before that it dischargeth it self into the Caspian Sea and the Danube as many before she flow into the Pontus And although that Pliny and Cardan write that no Rivers flow into the Nile yet experience testifieth the contrary to them that have travelled in Abyssine The Proposition is easily proved by an enumeration of Examples Springs proceed commonly from Hills Mountains The Springs of some Rivulets and Rivers are in Mountains and elevated places and some on a Plane As for the Springs of those Rivers that proceed from Lakes we have said in the former Chapter that those Springs are in the bottom or Channel of the Lakes and that such Lakes are as it were Conduits and effusions about the Spring before that the water floweth in a Channel or in a greater quantity For some Springs are covered with Earth or water others open The Springs on a Plane are of those Rivers from which Tanais and Albis exist in their first tract unto which others do accede It were easie to collect other Examples Cardanus deny â—â—h these Fountains to be generated in these plane places but to be derived from the vicine Mountains by some subterraneous passage But I suppose that such Springs first make a standing Pool or Marsh For Tanais seemeth not to flow from a Spring but from a Marsh or some less profound Lake Many are the Mountainous Springs of Rivulets as of those of the Rhine Po Danube Borysthenes c. The Nile Wolga and the great River of St. Laurence in Canada flow from a Lake Yet there is one mode by which from one Fountain a great River may proceed viz. if that the Fountain be on an Elevated place but the Channel of the River must be a little higher than the Altitude of the inlet So the flowing water first in a more swift Current then in a more slow is collected in the Channel and in course of time may be a very great River by reason that so much did not flow out in the first generation Proposition IV. Rivers are very much augmented by frequent Rains and dissolved Snow and that in divers seasons and months of the year Rivers are much encreased by rain and snow So in the Region of Peru and Chili some Rivers are so small that they flow not in the night time but only in the day because that then the water floweth from Snow dissolved on the Mountainâ— of the Andes through the heat of the Sun So the Rivers both in the Oriental and Occidental Coast of the procurrent of Africa as in congo Angola and the like are bigger in the day than in the night So it is also in the shoars of Malabar and Chormandel in India Yea in those four Regions in Summer time the Rivers are almost dried up and in the Winter or wet season are overflowing So Wolga in the Months of May and June aboundeth with water so that the Lands and Islands are then covered with water in the other Months the Sands will hardly admit a passage over them for Ships that are laden The reason is because that then the Snow is dissolved on the Mountains whence those Rivulets proceed which being more than one hundred do exonerate themselves into the Volga So the Nile Ganges Indus c. are augmented from rains or Snow so that they overflow the Lands But these augments happen in a different season because that they arise from divers causes and divers places for by reason that rains are more frequent in the Winter therefore Rivers are more high at the season except another cause intervene from the dissolution of Snow which sometimes happeneth in some places and Mountains in the Spring in others in the Summer and in others in the intermedial time by reason that the Snow is then dissolved on the Mountains that are adjacent to the Rivulets of these Rivers Moreover some Rivers especially the greater proceed from remote places where it is then Summer when it is Winter in the place through which they flow and those variations cause the swelling of Rivers in divers seasons But most Rivers do so in the Spring because that then Snow is dissolved in most places The variety of these causes must be shewed in the particular description of every River Concerning that peculiar Spring of Japan which floweth every day only for two hours we shall speak in the following Chapter Proposition V. What may be the Original of that water which floweth from Springs Or whence are Rivers generated The cause of water flowing from Springs We have before our eyes the great River Rhine Albis and others the generation of which by reason of their abundance of waters seemeth more admirable than that of Rivulets but we have shewed in the precedent and third Proposition that the water of Rivers partly proceeds from 〈…〉 and the dissolution of Snow partly from Lakes and partly from the meeting of Rivulets and Rivers Therefore the question is not so much concerning the Rise and Springs of Rivers as the Original and perpetuity of Fountains and Springs The Opinion of Philosophers and Geographers are various The Opinions of Philosophers and Geographers concerning it are various 1. Some think that all the water of Springs of Rivers proceed from Rain or
and there are found Whirlpools in a River places more depressed and on the contrary ridges and little hills thence it cometh to pass that one part of the Channel although more removed from the Springs is higher than the other part of the Channel which is more nigh the Fountain and yet notwithstanding the water floweth from this to that because that quantity of water floweth into the places depressed that the superficies of it becometh higher than the little hillocks or ridges or the vicine patts which being more elevated lie towards the mouth And there is scarce any River to be found whose Channel hath not these inequalities especially in the Nile and Wolga these ridges do abound A Cataract what And where the water falleth from a higher place to a more depressed part of the Channel if the depression be great the place is termed the Cataract of the River where the River runeth downwards with a great violence Such Cataracts great Rivers have especially the Nile For the Nile in two places of his Channel falleth down between the Mountains with that noise and rapidness that the Inhabitants are reported to be deafned by the same Wolgda also a small River in Moscovia not Wolga hath two Cataracts near Ladoga So the Zaire a River in Congo six miles from the shoar hath a Cataract where it falleth from a Mountain also the Rhine at Belefilda and Scaffusia falleth with a great noise But Drainers have observed that if the bottom of the Channel be depressed one pass in 200 paces it will hardly be navigable by reason of its celerity Seeing therefore that all great Rivers are Navigable we infer That the depression of the Channel is no greater than one pass or mile in 200 but particular Cataracts and Whirlpools are excepted Now this depression of one part of the Channel beneath the other part is termed Libramentum and the depression of the mouths of the River beneath the place of the Fountain is termed the Libramentum of the River Proposition XI Why Rivers have or acquire a greater Latitude in one part of them than in the other Of the Latitude of Rivers The causes are fourfold 1. If that the bank or shoar be more low in this part than in that 2. If that the Earth of the shoar be less hard and coherent as not being sufficient to resist the violent access of the River which sometimes proceedeth from the winds or plenty of water 3. If that the Channel on that part be less profound or hallowed or have ridges And 4. If that it flow from any Cataract into that part Proposition XII The Channels of Rivers become more or less depressed sometimes in this and sometimes in that part They become less depressed or elevated and not so hollow 1. If that Ridges be generated 2. If that the River become more broad on that part 3. If that the flux become less swift The depression or cavity of the Channel is augmented if that the flux of the River be more vehement and swift especially from some Cataract or between the narrownesses of the shoars more especially if that the whole bottom consist of earth less coherent Proposition XIII Why some Rivers run with a more swift current and others with a more slow And why one and the same River is carried with a swift current in one place and with a slow in another which is observed of the Rhine in many places Of the motion of Rivers The causes are 1. The Altitude of the Spring 2. The depression in the parts of the Channel or bottom especially in the mouth for if that the bottom be depressed one mile in two hundred Drainers have observed that the water is so swiftly moved that there is great danger in sailing For where there are Cataracts there the Rivers rush with a mighty violence and therefore Torrents are carried so furiously because that they flow from Mountains 3. The streightness of the Channel and profundity joyned with an abundant quantity of water as when Rivers pass between two Mountains or procurrent Lands Rivers famous for their swift course are the Tigris Indus Danube Yrtiis Malmistra that floweth with so great a noise that it may be heard a great distance off Proposition XIV The mouths of Rivers may be by so much the more easily obstructed by how much they are the more broad and by how much they are the deeper or less depressed and by how much there is less quantity of water and the flux is less swift and vehement For these causes make the River to be carried with a lesser violence neither doth it thrust forth the Terrestrial matter which is collected in its mouths but rather suffereth it to sink Proposition XV. Very few Rivers are carried in a direct course from the Spring to the Out-let many seek divers quarters in their flux and some flow with many windings The course of Rivers from the Spring The cause seemeth partly to be the industry of men partly the motion of the water partly the interposition of a ridge or bank in its direct course Winding Rivers are 1. Rio de Orellana in Brazilia making innumerable windings so that its Passage or Channel is reckoned to be above 1500 miles when in a direct line from the spring of it to the mouth are only 700 miles 2. The River De Madres in Anatolia which hath 600 windings 3. The River Toera arising in Siberica floweth with so many curvatures or windings and the Russians and Siberians when they sail in it carry the Boat or small Vessel and its lading by land from one winding to another to avoid greater expence Proposition XVI Whether the Lakes through which some Rivers do seem to pass or to enter into and to go out from be caused by Rivers or whether they have their peculiar Springs and augment the water of Rivers also whether that a River flowing from a Lake be the same with that which floweth in Of the cause of Lakes All Rivers have not such Lakes but some only Nubia a River of Africa hath five the River Niger four Rhodanus the Lake Lemanus c. Concerning those Lakes we have spoken in the preceding Chapter viz. that a River going forth must be compared with that which entereth in if that which goeth forth be greater than that which entereth in there will be peculiar Springs in the bottom of the Lake which causeth that River but if that a lesser or at least no greater goeth forth this Lake is made and conserved by the River entering in and the cause or original of its generation was the latitude and cavity or depression of the Channel and a Lake may be made from any River as we have said in the preceding Chapter Although the River going forth be situated almost in a direct line with the River entering in yet those two Rivers shall be accounted one River or the parts of one River viz. when that which goeth forth is
greater than that which entereth in for if it be lesser or no greater I think we ought not to question whether that which goeth forth be the same with that which cometh in Other Notes or Signs are in some as the Rhodanus entereth the Lake Lemanus and again goeth forth and yet causeth not that Lake which is discovered besides other tokens from the colour which this River beareth contrary to the Lake neither doth the Rhine cause any Lake but is produced and conserved from waters bubling under the earth yet I do not propose these as undoubted Proposition XVII Most Rivers are by so much the broader by how much they are near to their mouth or removed from their Spring and great is their Latitude in their Mouths or Outlets The Mouths of Rivers broader than at their Springs The cause is 1. Because other Rivers enter into that which exonerateth it self into the Sea and so the quantity of water is augmented 2. Because the Channel is less depressed in the parts nearer the mouth 3. Because that the water is forced back by the wind blowing from the Sea from the mouth to the Fountain which violence is only discovered in the parts near to the mouth not in those remote and near the Fountain 4. The Sea it self when such a wind bloweth entereth the mouth and rendereth it more large and broad by vehement agitation And by so much the outlets are larger and broader in great Rivers by how much they are the fewer Great are the mouths or outlets of the River Maragnon in Brazilia of St. Laurence in Canada of the Zaire in Africa of Rio de la Plate in Brazilia for this River is carried into the Sea by an out-let of 40 miles as some have observed or as others of 20 miles only And I suppose those that write of 40 miles comprehend the other mouths of the River together Those who have been in Congo relate that the mouth of the Zaire is 28 miles and these Rivers sending forth such a large quantity of water overcome and obscure both the salt taste of the water and the motion of the Sea towards the shoar and that unto 10 or 12 miles in the Sea Proposition XVIII The water of Rivers carrieth with it many particles of various Metals Minerals Sands of oyly or fat Bodies Rivers in their course carry various things with them Some Rivers carry gold that is sands mixed with some grains of gold and such are 1. some in Japan 2. In the Islands of Lequeo not far from Japan 3. A Riveret called Arroe in Africa which springeth in Monomotapa from the foot of the Mountains of the Moon in which Mountains there are golden Mines and it floweth into Magnice a River in Soffalae 4. In Guiney where the Negroes separate these grains from the sand and sell it or exchange it with the Europeans for Toyes or slight Commodities 5. In the Riverets about Mexico grains of gold are also gathered up especially after showers of Rain Which must be understood of all these Riverets For except in the times of showers scarcely any or very little is found 6. In Peru. 7. In Sumatra 8. In Cuba 9. In Hispaniola and other adjacent Isles 10. In Guiana a Province in America 11. In the Rivers of Caribana great grains are found after showers 12. Many Riverets and Springs are found in the Regions about the Alpes in Germany especially in the Province of Tirol from the water of which gold and silver is extracted although nothing of grains be conspicuous in them because they carry very small Particles or Atomes The Rhine also carrieth golden clay in many places as also the Abbis In times past the River Tagus was famous for rowling down Sand-gold but at this day no such are found in it neither do I remember that any River in Europe is celebrated for such riches Also in Hassia at this time a small River is reported to be found in the sands of which were grains of gold but I have read no Author worthy of credit concerning it No Silver Rivers or Riverets are taken notice of by Writers yet I doubt not but that there as many or more Riverets which carry grains of gold but because they are not so easily discovered from the sand and no great gain can be obtained therefore it hath not yet been observed by any The same is also the cause why we meet with no mention of those Riverets that carry grains of Iron Copper Tin except of very few of which questionless there are a great number the admirable effects of which being discovered men admire and are amazed and vulgar Philosophers fly to an occult quality Let us only cast an eye on that River in upper Germany A strange River in Germany which changeth Iron into Copper as the Vulgar think so that if you hang an Iron shoe in it you will draw it out Copper But the Iron is not changed into Copper as is vulgarly supposed but the grains and particles of Copper and Vitriol that are in this River corrode the Iron by the assistance of the motion of the water and the particles of the Iron being removed those of the Copper succeed in their places This the Modern Physicians that are skilful in Chymistry have learned by another experiment Much less are the Riverets that are impregnated with many particles of kinds of earth and salts observed But we shall explain in the following Chapter the Mineral and Metallick Springs From this admixture of various particles proceedeth the great diversity of waters in Rivers and Wells The water of some if that you use it to boyl Meat maketh it black which is a sign that it is impregnated with Iron neither are Pease so easily softned as when they are boyled in other water which is somewhat more fat Of divers waters the same or like Beer cannot be made Now the Albis is of the number of these fat ones as I may so say The cause of this variety is to be sought from the variety of the Lands through which the River runeth which are either stony gravelly or metallick And experience testifieth that Rivers whose water is fat do run through clayie Lands so all the places that adjoyn to the Albis are fruitful Proposition XIX The waters of most Rivers differ in colour gravity and other qualities The waters of most Rivers are of different qualities For some waters are black some inclining to black some inclining to red some to white And this diversity of them is chiefly noted when that two Rivers do meet for we may discover for many miles those waters where now they exist in the same part of the Channel From whence also 't is manifest that they differ in gravity when that one rather sinketh to the bottom of the Channel than the other although this is made more manifest by the examination by weight The water of the Ganges is accounted the most wholsome and the most light and
or force in and therefore a general Wind is considered especially in the midst of the Sea most remote from the Land 2. Yet another wind may also blow in the midst of the Sea viz. if that in another a Cloud or other cause generating of a wind be very great From these two Causes it happeneth that a general wind is less or more constant or continual in divers placer Now the general winds are only found in the Sea of the torrid Zone or that which lieth between the Tropicks about the whole Earth yet in some places it extendeth it self without the Tropicks the space of 7 degrees and they are called Eastern that is the East-wind or collateral to the East as the South-East North-East viz. which blow from the East towards the West for the whole year But they do not consist with the like constancy in all the parts of that Sea but in some they are more hindred and in some less They are more constant in the Pacifick Ocean viz. in that part of it which lieth between the Tropicks so that Ships that loose from the Port of Aquapulco in New Spain in America towards the Philippin Isles that is such as steer their course from the East to the West oftentimes for 60 degrees Sail continually without any alteration or furling of the Sail with a constant East or North-East wind neither unto this day hath any Ship in that most long Voyage of 1650 miles been cast away Whence the Mariners say that they may sleep securely in this Voyage neither is there any need of guiding the Ship seeing that the general Wind bringeth the Ship to the wished Port for here other winds do impede the general Wind. The same constancy of this same Easterly wind is found in the Sea from the Cape or Promontory of Good-hope in the bounds of Africa or rather from that procurrent part of Africa which lieth in the Torrid Zone even to Brazil in the midst of which Voyage lieth the Isle of St. Helena unto which Mariners returning from India unto Europe are wont to direct their Course The Isle of St. Helena is distant from the Promontory of Good-hope 350 Miles and is oftentimes accomplished in sixteen days or also in twelve as the general wind is either vehement or slack for in this there is not a perpetual likeness the Sea-men using the same security when that they have first sailed to the Parallel of that Island for the Promontory of Good-hope lieth without the Tropicks which we have said that they use who Sail in the Pacifick Ocean from Aquapulco to the Philippins yea when that they have passed the Promontory of Good-hope they judge themselves to have escaped all danger and variation of the winds and sleep securely the wind constantly filling their Sails towards that Island and Brazil But yet this only is their great care that they may not Sail beyond the Island seeing that it is a very small one for if that they have passed it the eighth part of a mile they cannot regain it viz. an Easterly wind forcing them towards the West therefore then they are forced with great loss of their Voyage to make to the Coasts of Brazil or the other Isle called Ascension to water at If then you demand by what course they Sail when that the Ships make a contrary Voyage in this Sea viz. whilst that they steer from the Philippin Isles unto New Spain or from Brazil and the Isle of St. Helena unto the Promontory of Good-hope whilst that they Sail from India in these Voyages the Reader must know that Mariners use a threefold mode for either they navigate the Sea scituated without the Tropicks therefore they do not touch at the Isle of St. Helena whilst that they Sail from Europe into India or where necessarily they must pass by this they do not directly steer their course from the West to the East but obliquely from the North the Collateral quarter of it to the South or the Collateral quarter of it or lastly they choose such a time of Navigation in which they know that that general wind is impeded often by others But this latter because that it happeneth rarely therefore they rather make choice of the two former Modes of which we sâ—ll speak more in the Chapter of Navigation Therefore there are two Seas of the Torrid Zone in which that general Oriental wind with its Collaterals reigneth throughout the whole year viz. that which lieth between the procurrent of Africa and Brazil the other is that which is extended between New Spain or rather between America and the Oriental Islands of which the Philippins are a part The third part of this Sea under the Torrid Zone viz. between the Procurrent of Africa and the Philippins or Oriental Islands is not indeed destitute of this general wind but oftentimes it is hindred in this Sea by reason of the frequency of Islands which hindrance yet in some places is more frequent than in other some Between Mozambique and India the general wind is of most force in January February March April in other Months other winds do blow of which we shall speak in the following Proposition This general wind is more hindred in the Sea of the Indian Isles At the Isle of Banda in the Month of May the Oriental winds begin to be prevalent being very violent and accompanied with rain at Malacca in September and in other places otherwise as we shall shew in the following Proposition See Proposition 3. Yet this you must know that this general wind doth not equally extend it self in these Seas towards the Tropicks in all parts but that there is a great difference in this For the Tropicks are distant from the Aequator on both sides 23 ½ deg but the general wind may be discovered in one Meridian unto the Latitude of 20 degrees in another Meridian unto 15 in another unto 12. So in the Indian Ocean when in the Months of February and January the East wind or South or South-East bloweth it is not discovered until you come to the 15 degree of Latitude So unto those that Sail from Goa unto the Promontory of Good-hope here a general wind meeteth them at the 12 deg of South Latitude and at the 28 degree of the same Latitude accompanieth them So also Mariners have observed that no general wind bloweth between the 4. degree of Northern Latitude even unto the 10 or 11 deg between Africa and America for when they have Sailed by that wind from St. Helena towards the Aequator even unto the 4 deg of Northern Latitude then are they destitute of that wind even until they come unto the 10 degree of Latitude And from that degree even unto the 30 the North-East is again manifestly found continually to blow although that the 30 degrees be 7 degree from the Torrid Zone Yet notwithstanding in the 6 7 and 8. degree of Parallel Latitude it also bloweth in some places but in
all places almost in the Parallels of the 10 deg even unto the 30 deg North. After the same manner beyond the Tropick of Capricorn in the Sea between the Promontory of Good-hope and Brazile the South-East wind bloweth even unto the 30 deg of Latitude that is 7 degrees beyond the Torrid Zone towards the South and that through the whole year And although as we have said that this general wind is not discovered on all Coasts much less in Mediterranean places yet in some it is sufficiently observable So on the Coasts of Brazile Easterly unto the Coasts of Loango the South-East is a Quotidian wind although that other winds do admin themselves There is a threefold Cause of this continual general wind alledged by Modern Philosophers for both it and the Torrid Zone were unknown to the Antients who have not so much as mentioned it Some Determine that the Sun is the cause of this wind blowing from the East to the West by reason that by its great faculty it rarifyeth the Air in the Torrid Zone and so it thrusteth it forwards from the East to the West seeing that the Sun it self goeth this way Some and those of the Opinion of Pythagoras that Determined the Heaven to stand still and the Earth to moved round some of them I say supposed this general wind to Proceed from hence viz. that whilst the Earth is moved round and the Air with it this less followeth the motion of the Earth but is somewhat more slower to motion and therefore whilst that we are carried with the Earth from the West to the East the Air moved with less celerity to the same quarter seemeth to meet us and to be moved from the East to the West when that yet we do rather meet it See Des Cartes in his 222 Proposition of his Principels Des Cartes alledgeth the third Cause and that altogether new in the 222 Proposition in his Principles Where he endeavoureth to shew that the Moon causeth this motion as well as the motion of the Sea from the East to the West But because that his Opinion cannot be understood except that all his Philosophical Hypotheses should be Explained therefore we shall say nothing concerning it here especially seeing that we shall shew in another place that that Cause is not true I approve of the first Cause the second seemeth therefore not to be received because that many Copernicans approve not of it and no reason can be given why this wind should be found to blow only between the Tropicks or to the 30 deg of Latitude and not in the whole temperate Zone Proposition III. Some Winds are Periodical and fixed others wandering and Erratick Some winds fixed others wandering Those are termed fixed and periodical which blow on certain daies and then cease for a certain number of daies until that they begin to blow again Some return in the space of half a year othersome are Monthly which return in the interval of one or two Months Also the fixed winds are otherwise subdivided viz. some when that they begin to blow continue for some Months others for half a year others for a Month others for a few daies Amongst these those are chiefly observed by Mariners which blow for some Months in certain places of the Sea and they call these winds as also the times wherein such winds blow Motions or Moussons And such Motions are more especially notable in the Indian Ocean from Africa to the Philippine Isles although that they be not wanting in other places there is a very great moment to be placed in the observation of these Motions for Seamen ought to choose the time of them for the Voyage that they intend to that same quarter or that which is collateral unto which that wind bloweth neither to undertake a Voyage to the quarter of this Motion but to expect the contrary Motion For in the parts of the Indian Ocean where that one wind ceaseth to blow for some Months another succeedeth contrary to the former and continueth with the same constancy until that it hath compleated its time and therefore they call these Contrary Motions They term those the time of the mutation of those Motions which intercede between the end of one Mousson and the begining of the contrary For one Motion ceasing another doth not presently begin to blow but some days fall between some times more sometimes fewer also more in some places and fewer in other some And in these intermedial daies in which no certain Motion bloweth the wind is variable the calm dangerous and for the most part the Sea is tossed with uncertain waves and sudden Tempests arise some of these Motions return twice in a year but not with the same vehemency whence Mariners term the one the great Motion the other the lesser 1. In that part of the Atlantick Ocean that lyeth in the Torrid Zone as also that which is in the Temperate Zone the North wind perpetually bloweth in the Months of October Months most fit to taka a Voyage from Europe to India November and January And therefore these Months are chiefly fit to undertake a Voyage in from Europe to India that they may pass the Aequator by the help of those winds For it is manifest by experience that some Ships that have set Sail from Europe in March have arrived no sooner at Brazile than those that have set Sail in October viz. both of them have come thither in the Month of February being helped by the North wind Yet because that this wind is not so continual and certain therefore Mariners are not wont to call it a Motion Neither is it an easie matter to render a cause of this wind in these Months unless you will refer it to copious thick vapours or to a continnual pressure made from thick Clouds But those that have wintered in Nova Zembla testifie that there is a most frequent North wind all the time of the Winter where this effect cannot be ascribed unto the Sun rarifying the Air seeing that he lyeth obscured under the Horizon Yet I suppose that in general the Cause may proceed from the dissolving of Snows or gross Vapours or Clouds collected in the Winter in the Northern and Southern places especially on the Mountains Which I am induced to believe by this Argument more especially because that these Motions blow for the most part from the North and South quarters or the Collateral unto them Therefore by reason that Snow and thick Clouds are dissolved in the Northern places by the Sun especially in that half of the year in which he passeth through the North part of the Ecliptick therefore those Motions shall then be Northernly After the same manner in the Southern or Antartick places for the other half of the year the Sun dissolveth the Snow and the thicker Clouds therefore then the Motion shall be discovered Southerly Now that these Motions blow more from the Sea in the Collateral quarters
North Latitude in the Sea seventy miles from Guinea a South-East wiad predominateth from the 20th of April to the 5th of May but not on the Shoar or in Guinea it self after the 5th of May the same wind is also discovered at the 3 deg and 3 ½ of Latitude 12. At the Isle of Madagascar from the 15th of April unto the last of May the North and North-West wind bloweth but in February and March the winds blow from the East and South 13. In April or May in the tract of Land and Sea from Madagascar to the Promontory of Good-hope the North wind and the wind Collateral to the North blow continually to the East so that it is esteemed a Miracle if that the Southo South-East wind blew for two daies 14. After the 20 of April in the Sea of Bengala the South wind is violent before that day the South-West and North-West and those being very impetuous do predominate 15. There is a Motion for Navigation from Malacca to Maccou in July October November December viz. the South winds and South-West winds and oftentimes the South-East winds but in June and July at the begining the West winds rage about Malacca and in the Sea of China 16. The Motion by which they Sail from Java to China from the West to the East begineth with the Month of May. 17. The Motion by which they Sail from China to Japan from the West to the East is in force in June and July viz. the South-West wind but the North and Collateral wind to the North at the East oftentimes interpose and that especially at the day time but in the night season the South-East and the first Collateral wind at the East do interpose and let 18. A contrary Motion viz. from Japan to Maccou from the East to the West is in February and March viz. the East and North-East winds but these predominate not in the Sea but on the Coasts of China which those that Sail in that Voyage from Japan observe they term them the Winds over the Land 19. The motion by which they Sail from the Phillippine Isles or China to Aquaepulco in America viz. the Western winds are observed in June July and August but they are very weak except in the Full Moon now they are the South-West winds but they avoid the Torrid Zone and choose the Coasts of America Septentrional is to shun the wind that is general from the East which yet then is less vehement This therefore must be known in general that the Occidental Motions or West winds are more weak than the Oriental because that these are helped by a general wind but these are diminished by it 20. In the Sea of China a South and South-West Motion reigneth in July August and October But if that these winds be changed into an Oriental Motion they never presently return to the South but first to the North hence when they have blowed some daies they return to the East and lastly to the South sometimes the North-East is immediately changed into the South-West sometimes presently from the North to the South and that here is sufficiently frequent So in the Sea anniversary winds are more constant unto which I add those that are less constant and those which on the Coasts and also on Maritimate places are observed to be Anniversary Proposition IV. The Etesian winds so termed that are Anniversary in Grece proceed from Rain and Snow dissolved on the Mountains Of Etesian winds and from what they proceed The Grecians observed a twofold kind of Winds on every Year which were Stated and termed Etesian winds Viz. 1. Those in the Summer or Canicular winds which they called by the General term Etesiae because that they were more strong and sensible 2. The Winter winds which they called the Chelidonii or Ornithiae The Canicular Etesian winds are Northern in the placing of the begining of which to a certain Writers do much differ When that Aristotle had added that they blow after the Summer Solstice he mentioneth nothing of the true time which certainly is a very great negligence which at length he augmenteth where making mention of the Ornithiae he omitteth both the time and the quarter of these winds but those that have noted the time of the Etesian winds they have observed that the forerunners of them begin to blow either on the 6 of July or on the 15 of July at the rising of the Canicular or Dog Star Now those winds blow 40 daies the whole space of the Dog dates and therefore end with the Month of August but others extend them to September they only blow in the day and cease in the night therefore Mariners formerly called them the sleepy and delicate winds The cause of these winds questionless is the dissolving of the Snow caused by the heat of the Sun on the Northern Mountains which at that time is very great by reason that now for divers Months together almost he hath continually shined on those Mountains without any setting and with this cause it aptly agrees that the Etesian winds cease on the night because that then the resolution of the Snow ceaseth or at least is lesser than the generation of the wind requireth because that the Sun then is over or near the Horizon or else setteth wholly The same Northern Canicular wind is not only in Greece but also in Thrace Macedonia the Aegean Sea and the Isles of the same all which Regions are sometimes comprehended under the general term of Greece yea in Aegypt also and it is probable that the wind which we have said in the former Proposition bloweth in Congo scituate beyond the Aequator that that wind that bloweth from the North between March and September is the same with these Etesian winds of the Grecians or at least proceed from the same cause as also that North wind which we have said bloweth in the same Months in the Kingdom of Guzurat from March to September these I say we ought to Determine to proceed from the dissolved Snows of the Mountains of Asia termed the Sarmatian Mountains and the Girdle of the World and therefore we reckon it amongst the Motions The second Anniversary wind of the Grecians is the Chelidonian which they relate to begin after Winter but have not noted the day of the beginning Now these are South winds contrary to the Canicular or Etesian winds and very weak without violence Moreover inconstant and not so continual whence they render the Sea calm Aristotle relateth that they blow by Course even unto the middle of Summer until the Northern Canicular Etesian winds begin but that they are not so much discerned The Cause also of these winds is the dissolving of the Snow on the Mountains of Monomotapa which Snow the Sun rarifyeth because that in the time of Winter and that of Greece they have Summer the Sun passing through the Southern parts of the Zodiack and this wind is also found in Congo Aegypt and the Aegean
for when the Sun passeth through the Vertex of those places then every one will then confess that there ought to be Summer except some other cause obstructed in respect of the Celestial cause and so in places scituated in the Aequator the Spring or Summer ought not to be in the entrance of the Sun into the first degree of Aries or Libra but rather the Summer because then he passeth through the Vertex of those places and causeth great heat except some other cause hinders Neither can the Summer be transferred unto the first degree of Cancer or Capricorn The same also holdeth concerning places scituated between the Aequator and the Tropicks because the Sun passeth through their Vertex before that he draweth near to the first degree of Cancer or Capricorn and therefore first causeth the Summer there For we must know that although Definitions may be free yet seeing that by the common notions of all Nations they define the Summer by Heat and the Winter by Cold or at least by a lesser degree of Heat and so the Definitions ought to be made that they may render as little as may be from these Notions and in no sort be contrary to them The same difficulty is concerning the Spring and Autum of the places of the Torrid Zone yea they do not seem to have place here especially in places which lye in the Aequator Of Heats and Cold. The second difficulty for which this Question is proposed is this Whether the Seasons are to be defined from the very degree of heat and cold viz. the Spring Summer Autumn and Winter or from the access or recess of the Sun For the common notion of the Men of Europe which they form concerning those Seasons or in which they do conceive them comprehendeth both although they have more respect to heat than cold But Astronomers are more attentive to the access and recess or entrance of the Sun into certain Signs of the Zodiack as we have said before Moreover it is observed in many places of the Torrid Zone that those Seasons answer not the access and recess of the Sun but that contrary to the Celestial motion of the Sun they are tried by a Winter raging not with cold but with storms and rains when they should have Summer by reason of the vicinity of the Sun and on the contrary they have Summer when the Sun is remote when they should have Winter of which more anon and so those People define not the Summer and Winter by the access of the Sun and his entrance into certain Signs but they define the Summer by its serenity and the Winter by its rain and somewhat cold Air. And so it is impossible to make definitions of the Spring Summer Autumn and Winter as to be general and agreeable to all these places according to the notions of the People These difficulties thus considered I thus think First seeing that in many places of the Torrid Zone as we have spoken in the second difficulty and also some certain places of the Temperate Zones Heat and Cold happen contrary to the Celestial mode or motion of the Sun yet notwithstanding those definitions cannot be made accurately by Heat and Cold therefore these terms of the Seasons must be distinguished as being Homonymical so that we must make some Seasons to be Celestial and others Terrestrial I confess these terms to be less fit but the want of better doth compel me to use them so that it is termed the Terrestrial Summer of any place in which in that place a great heat is caused every year by the Sun but the Celestial Summer is termed that season of the year wherein a great heat ought to be in that place by reason of the vicinity of the Sun So that is termed the Celestial Winter of a place in which season Cold should be in that place by reason of the great distance of the Sun but that season is termed the Terrestrial Winter of any place in which there is very great Cold in that place every year And although in many places the Celestial and Terrestrial Winter happen in one season of the year as also the Celestial and Terrestrial Summer yet there are some places of the Torrid Zone where they observe divers seasons of the year as we shall shew in the following discourse The same should be said of the Celestial and Terrestrial Spring and likewise of the Autumn Secondly Seeing that there are few places where the Terrestrial Summer and Winter differ from the Celestial in the season of the year but in most places fall in with the same time of the year therefore the Celestial Summer may be absolutely termed the Summer so also the Winter the Spring and the Autumn But when we speak of the Terrestrial we must add the word Terrestrial but where we simply say the Summer the Winter Spring and Autumn we are to understand the Celestial seasons agreeing with the Terrestrial But how shall we make distinct and accurate definitions of the Summer viz. the Celestial the Winter the Spring and the Autumn so that they may be general for all places and also take place in the Torrid Zone I know no other Mode whereby such definitions may be made but only this The definitions of the sous Seasons of the year 1. The Celestial Summer of any place is that season of the year whose beginning is that day in the Meridies of which the Sun hath the least distance from the Vertex of the place and that in the first season if the Sun become vertical to that place in two seasons The end that day in whose Meridies the Sun receiveth a moderate distance from the first Vertex of that place or whether it be lesser than that of all other days of the year 2. That is termed the Winter of any place the beginning of which is that day in whose Meridies the Sun obtaineth the greatest distance from the Vertex of that place And the end that day in whose Meridies the Sun acquireth a moderate distance from the Vertex of that place 3. That season is termed the Spring of any place which falleth between the end of the Winter and the beginning of the Summer or whose beginning is that day in the Meridies of which the Sun hath acquired a moderate distance from the Vertex when he hath come from a great distance And the end is that day where in whose Meridies the Sun hath acquired a very small distance from the first Vertex of the place 4. The Autumn of any place is termed that season of the year falling between the end of Summer and the beginning of Winter or whose beginning is that day in the Meridies of which the Sun receiveth a mean distance from the Vertex of the place coming from a lesser And the end that day in the Meridies of which the Sun hath obtained a very great distance from the Vertex of the place According to these
termed the Longitude of the Twilight in which either before the rising of the Sun or after his setting some light is discovered in the Air. For the finding the Longitude of the Twilight by the Globe of any place and day of the year For the finding out of the quantity of this time we must suppose that which is observed by Astronomers as we have said in the nineteenth Chapter that the morning twilight beginneth for the most part if the Air be serene the Sun drawing nigh to the eighteenth degree of depression beneath the Horizon and the evening endeth when the Sun hath come to that degree of depression Let therefore the Pole be elevated for the Latitude of the place given and let the place of the Sun in the Ecliptick being found from the day of the year be sought in the Ecliptick of the Globe and let his opposite point be noted then let the Quadrant be applied to the Vertex and the point noted be found to the Horizon the Index to the twelfth hour of the Cycle then let the Globe be turned round until the noted point be elevated 18 degrees above the Horizon which is known by the help of the Quadrant for so shall the place of the Sun be depressed so many degrees beneath the Horizon and the Index in the Cycle shall shew how many hours or parts of an hour the serenity of the Air being laid down the twilight continueth that day in the place given It is convenient by three examples to learn the use of this Problem choosing a place for one of the Torrid Zone another of the Temperate and a third of the Frigid Zone Proposition VIII In places of the Torrid Zone the twilights are small very long in those of the Frigid and moderate in those of the Temperate Zone Of the difference of the Twilights in the several Zones For in places of the Aequator and those near the Crepusculum according to the Hypothesis laid down in the former Proposition is of about one hour which yet experience testifieth is only half an hour or little more because the more thick and gross Air is not so high there as is required to make the twilight to the 18 degree of depression both also because the Hypothesis of the 18 degree is to be taken concerning very small light with which the twilight beginneth such as yet is not accounted by the Vulgar for a twilight In the Frigid Zone the twilights continue for many days when the Sun remaineth beneath their Horizon In the Temperate Zone it continueth 3 4 5 and 6 hours and in some places all night and in the days of the Summer according as the places are more or less nigh the Frigid Zone All these are proved by the Mode proposed in the precedent Proposition Proposition IX A place being given in the Temperate or Frigid Zone and another in the Torrid Zone and moreover the day of the year being given to find out the hour of the place of the Torrid Zone in which hour the Sun may have the Altitude above the Horizon of that place and so strike that place with his rayes equally elevated as great as it hath in the place of the Temperate Zone in the Meridies it self Let the Pole be elevated for the Latitude of the place of the Temperate or Frigid Zone and let the place of the Sun found from the day given be brought to the Meridian and the Altitude of it reckoned for this is the Altitude of the rayes heating that place and illustrating it in the Meridies Then let the Pole be elevated for the Latitude of the place given in the Torrid Zone let the Quadrant be applied to the Vertex and let the degree of Altitude before found out be noted in it let the place of the Sun be brought to the Meridian the Index to the twelfth hour of the Cycle then let both the Globe and the Quadrant be moved till the place of the Sun agree with the noted degree of the Quadrant for so the Sun shall have the same Altitude above the Horizon of this place as it is in the Meridies of the former The Index will shew the hour demanded in the Cycle therefore this hour and the rayes of the Sun illustrating and beating of the place and Air of the Torrid Zone are as equally elevated over the Horizon of it as the rayes in the Meridies of the former place it thence followeth that the same heat will be in the Torrid Zone at the hour found out as in the place of the Temperate Zone in the Meridies except other causes intercede Some hinderances viz. first that the Sun in the foregoing days hath introduced some one or other calid Constitution to the place and the Air of the Torrid Zone and not such and so great in the places of the Temperate or Frigid Zone Then secondly that the Sun straitly ascending towards the Meridian above the Horizon of the places of the Torrid Zone sendeth forth all his rayes to the place as in one plain and to one plaga and therefore causeth greater heat than in the Temperate or Frigid Zone where the Sun moveth obliquely from the Horizon to the Meridian and sends forth his rayes from one and another plaga therefore the rayes are not contracted into a place so narrow nor do they continually heat For example let us seek in what hour of the day in places being under the very Aequator on the day of the Aequinoctials the Sun will have that Altitude as he hath at Amstelodame on the Meridies of the same day Proposition X. How the causes of light heat and of the seasons which we have reckoned up in the first Proposition of this Chapter have themselves in the Torrid Zone and how to shew them Of the seasont light and heat in the Torrid Zone and how they are shewed First every day of the year ascendeth directly above the Horizon of those places especially of the Aequator towards the Meridian and the Vertex of them and therefore about the ninth hour of Forenoon he heginneth to ejaculate to those places rayes about 40 degrees declining from the perpendicular rayes which rectitude of the rayes or perpendicular of the rayes augmenteth towards the Meridies and again decreasing continueth to the fourth hour after the Meridies or Noonstead where the Sun departing towards the Occidental Horizon beginneth to send forth his rayes more obliquely to those places therefore the greatest heat in those places ought to be from about the ninth hour before Noon even to the third or fourth after Noon if that this cause be only regarded but yet because the Sun now departs from the Vertex of those places and sometimes approacheth nearer therefore the Winter of every one of those places shall be when the Sun goeth from the points of the Ecliptick much remote from those places that is from the first degree of Cancer or Capricorn towards the points having a middle
the Air than it would do without this refraction We shall anon alledge an example of the appearancy of the Sun proceeding from refraction 4. The Full Moon and near the Full remaineth above the Horizon for many days when the Sun is depressed beneath it viz. for so many more days by how much that place is more near the Pole Yet it is not so highly elevated above the Horizon as to cause any warmness But the Full Moon in those months in which the Sun remaineth above the Horizon in an whole revolution the Full Moon is never above the Horizon The Planets not always the same above Horizon 5. The Fixed Stars are almost the same always above the Horizon but not the Planets For Saturn remaineth 15 years above the Horizon of the place near the Pole and 15 beneath the same Jupiter 6 years beneath and 6 above the same Horizon Mars 1 year Venus and Mercury about half a year From this cause it is likely that there is great diversity of the motions of the Air and seasons in divers years 6. The Land in most places of the Frigid Zone is Stony Rocky and as hard as Flint in few places Chalky Sulphureous and Fat In these places there is a moderate fertility in the other a sterility 7. Those Regions are incompassed with the Sea but for the Mediterranian we as yet have no certain account 8. Some of the Regions of the Frigid Zone have Mountains of a moderate hight but most want them running on a plain for a long space 9. The cold Winds there frequently blow from the Polary Plaga seldom the East Wind and least of all the West In the cold Artick Plaga the North Winds rage in the Antartick the South 10. Clouds and Rains frequently perplex these Regions From these causes it is not difficult to collect what the condition of the seasons in these Regions are for in the Winter time when the Sun riseth not for whole daies it cannot otherwise be but that for the most part thick Clouds Frost and Cold must render the Land uninhabitable They are not altogether deprived of light for that time for the Moon being above the Horizon for a long time giveth light and the twilight is daily afforded from the Sun to the Vicine Horizon But the Snow the stick close about the Earth which cannot be discussed by the heat of the Sun and therefore hinder the aspect of remote things There is no fertility but all barren and uncultivated for that which some suppose by how much any Region is nearer to the Pole by so much less it feeleth the intenseness of the cold and the Fields are found more fertil seemeth not probable to me when neither in Nova Zembla which is distant 16 degrees from the Pole nor in Spitzbirga which is only 8 degrees distant such a constitution of the Earth is found but a roughness and hardness and almost in the middle of Summer Snows or at least Showers and very cold Winds Neither is their opinion helped by one example observed by Mariners in a certain Region 9 degrees distant from the Pole which most men suppose to be Groenland For in this green Grass is found and an Air more warm than in Nova Zembla as is most certain The only Animals peculiar to these Northern Regions Rhinoceros a kind of Venison is the Rhinoceros and this in the space of a month becometh exceeding fat by feeding on this grass Nevertheless seeing that as yet not many Regions are hitherto found of this temperature in the Frigid Zone it is not expedient for us from this single example to make a general conjecture especially seeing that the cause of this peculiar constitution is manifest for that Land is full of Marshes and Sedgey and the grass by which the Rhinoceros or Dear are tendred so fat is not a kind of Terrestrial Grass but Sedge and Osiers but other Herbs are not there found or any Trees From whence we may gather that that Land containeth some fat and Sulphureous Substance which being mixed which the water produceth such an Oyle and fattening Sedge but that the like Earth is to be found in other parts of the Frigid Zone hath not as yet been observed but rather the contrary Therefore in the Winter in these places is little light but an incredible and great violence of Cold Snow Showers and Polary Winds And this Winter beginneth in the Northern Frigid Zone when the Sun first entreth Capricorn although also the Autumn the Sun going from the 1 degree of Libra to the 1 of Capricorn be little different from this violent Winter The Spring indeed is less infested with this violence of the Air yet it is without Snows Showers and cold Polary Winds Yet the increase of heat in the day or rather the decrease of cold is discovered at that time viz. the Sun going from the 1 degree of Aries to the 1 of Cancer And in this Vernal season or in the latter days of it the Sun continueth above the Horizon in intire revolutions and therefore then there is discovered a moderate heat which yet is not of that force as to melt and dissolve the Snow of all those places into Water much less is it able to melt the Ice whence Marriners report that here is to be found Snow and Ice of a perpetual duration Then the Summer shall be from the going of the Sun from the 1 degree of Cancer to the 1 of Libra in the first part of which the Sun yet remaineth for whole daies above the Horizon and augmenteth the heat by some accession so that June July and August are months of a tolerable Air. In some places among the Mountains the heat of the Sun is intense but the Showers and Clouds do much hinder this benignity of the Sun and especially the most sharp Northern Winds unto which sometimes Snow is adjoyned so that no fruits or Corn can here arrive to any maturity except in some places near the Artick Circle CHAP. XXVII Of the Shadows which the bodies erected in the Earth and illuminated by the Sun do cast and of the division of the Earth arising from thence SEeing that the Shadows in divers places of the Earth which the illuminated bodies of the Sun do cast are carryed into divers places and falling on the Sense have much variety hence it came to pass that men who were ignorant of this cause were struck with an admiration and in respect of the Shadows of the Earth divided the Inhabitants of the Earth as it were into three sorts which division must be applyed to the places of the Earth or to its Superficies So that they termed some Amphiscij others Heteroscij and the rest Periscij The explication of which terms seeing that they contain but small learning we shall say somewhat also concerning Shadows which although they do not pertain to Geography yet by reason of their near affinity they may be proposed in this Chapter Of
being conveyed into the German Ocean and hence into various parts of the Earth but when that they had perfected a great part of the Channel The Water of the German Ocean higher than the Land they were compelled to desist by reason that at length they found by observation that the water of the German Ocean was higher than the Land of Leyden and the Shores of this Ocean therefore the German Ocean is higher than the Belgick Bay But we must esteem otherwise of those Bays which flow between the Lands not by an oblong but by a broad tract as the Bays or Gulphs of Mexico Bengala and others that these are of the same Altitude with the Ocean from which they are separated by no strait passages is not to be doubted of Although I am not ignorant that the Spaniards formerly did question this latter viz. whether the Pacifick Ocean were higher than the Bay of Mexico when they consulted of digging through the American Isthmus or that of Panama that they might have a free and convenient passage from the Bay of Mexico to Peru China and the Indian Isles viz. the Spaniards feared least the English Dutch and other Nations should use this Streight and stop the mouth of it and so invade Peru. Wherefore to conclude it seemeth that we must determine that all the parts and broad Bays of the Ocean are all of the same Altitude as the first Proposition proveth See Proposit I. but that the long Gulphs or Bays especially those let in through an angust Channel or Streight are somewhat more low chiefly in the extream parts Concerning which yet I could wish that more diligent Observations were made viz. these are the doubts 1. Whether the Indian Atlantick and Pacifick Ocean be of the same Altitude or whether the Indian or Pacifick be higher than the Atlantick 2. Whether the Northern Ocean properly so called viz. that which is near to the Pole or in the frigid Zone be higher than the Atlantick Ocean 3. Whether the Red Sea be higher than the Mediterranean 4. Whether the Pacifick be higher than the Gulph of Mexico 5. Whether the Baltick Ocean be equally as high as the Atlantick The same should be observed concerning Hudsons Bay Streights of Magellan and such other Concerning the Euxine Sea we shall treat in the fifteenth Chapter The continual flux and reflux of the Sea and other fluxes altogether cause the divers Altitudes of the parts of the Ocean and in the same part in a diverse time and hours of the day But these are external causes and we at present only consider the natural constitution of the Water moreover they do not so vary the Altitude in the Ocean it self as it appeareth at the shoars Corollary Therefore we cannot assent to Papyrius Fabianus and Cleomedes which made the greatest Altitude of the Ocean to be fifteen stadia's half a German mile except we must take their Opinion concerning the profundity and so Altitude is ill placed there for profundity Proposition VI. The depth of the Sea or Ocean in most parts may be sounded by the Load or Plummet there being very few places whose bottom hath not been yet found out The depth of the Sea in most places may be sounded The profundity of the Ocean is various according to the more or less depression of the Channels it is found 1 80 of a mile 1 20 ¼ ½ in very few places about a German mile where they have not line enough to sound the depth albeit here it be probable that it is not terminated at any vast distance But yet we deny not but that in the profound Channels there be as it were some hollownesses The profundity of the Sea is far lesser in the Sinus or Bays than in the Ocean which Channel is less profound or hollowed by reason of the vicinity of the Land as for the same reason the Ocean is less deep at the shoar than in places more remote from the Land which hapneth only by reason of the hollow figure of its Channels Of the Mariners Plumet Mariners sound the profundity with a Plumet of Lead in form of a Pyramid of about 12 pound weight if that the line be of three or four pound such as is sufficient unto 200 perches although others require a plumb of more weight Yet there may be a deceit in this Observation if so be that the line being snatched by the Vortices of the waters or waters themselves do not descend perpendicularly but obliquely But where the profundity of the Ocean is so great that neither Cables or Chains are sufficient is uncertain although some have invented something for finding out of this For they determine that you must observe how much time passeth in the space whilst a Plumet of noted weight descendeth to the profundity of the Sea Then you must apply a Cork or Alder-pith to the Plumet or a blown-up Bladder so that this may presently be separated from the lead when that the lead hath hit the bottom of the Sea and so an application being made the lead must be let down again to the bottom and the time must be noted until the Cork return to the superficies of the Sea From this Observation if it be compared with the observations made in another place they suppose that the profundity of the Ocean may be found by the use of some Canons But the uncertainty of the Rules and the fallacy of the Observations and the so great brevity of time is such that I think the knowledge of the depth can never be obtained by this method Yet this is sufficiently manifest that the depth of the Ocean is no where infinite but every where hath a bottom For seeing that the Earth it self is not infinite but round and in a figure returning into it self it is manifest that the profundity of the Ocean is not infinite neither doth it extend from one part of the superficies through the Center to the opposite superficies so that it may separate the parts of the Earth mutually from one another because the Earth is heavier than the Water and therefore the parts of the Earth if that they were separated by the interceding Earth yet presently would be conjoyned again But from the profundity observed hitherto in most places it is manifest that it is almost equal to the Altitude of the Mountains and Mediterranean places above the shoar viz. as much as these are elevated and are extant above the Horizon of the shoar so much are the Channels of the Sea depressed beneath it or as much as the Earth riseth from the shoars towards the Mediterranean places so much by degrees more and more is it depressed even unto the places of the middle of the Ocean where for the most part is the greatest depth The profundity is changed sometimes in this sometimes in that part for divers reasons 1. By reason of the flux and reflux 2. With the increase and decrease of the Moon 3. From
the exiguity of the water which doth not grow thick but resolveth For although you take a great quantity of water and that you provoke with a light and gentle fire that the resolution may be impeded yet the water acquireth no salt tast 3. Lakes and Marshes though heated by the Sun yet wax not salt This Objection also Scaliger endeavoureth to avoid saying that this hapneth by the succession of fresh water And the same is found in those standing Pools and Lakes which only proceed from Rain or Snow dissolved where there is no place for that refuge of succession for those Lakes are rather dried when that it raineth not for a long space than turned into Salt or rendred salt Therefore rejecting those false Opinions concerning the cause and original of Salt in the Ocean let us lay hold of one of the most probable Opinions with little or no difficulty in it viz. 1. That these particles are Coeternal with the very Ocean and therefore we should no more dispute concerning their original than concerning the original of the Ocean it self the Earth yea and of the original and generation of the World 2. If that this Opinion be less complacent we may make choice of another viz. that these salt particles are here and there pulled from the Earth and so dissolved into water Now it is certain that there are many saline Mountains or Rocks in the bosom of the Sea Isle of Ormus a salt Rock The whole Isle of Ormus is nothing else but a white and hard Salt of which they make the Walls of their Houses and therefore no Fountain of fresh water is found in that Isle And none can be ignorant how that many mines of Salt are found on the Land and we have related concerning some in the Eleventh Chapter but we need not particulars Let us consider the whole Earth The greatest part of the Earth hath much Salt in it the greatest part of which is nothing else but a Salt for it hath its consistency from Salt for the Chymical Philosophers do rightly prove that the consistency and compaction of every thing proceedeth from Salt and Experience is answerable to the Assertion for if that you take an hard piece of Earth and burn it to ashes much Salt will be found in it Nothing can be alledged against this Opinion that is of any value and is not easily refuted for some say that it is impossible that those salt parts of the Earth should perpetually suffice and should not at some time or other be consumed by the water of the Ocean which continually taketh away some part of them Unto this I answer That the Salt of the Ocean is not consumed in so great abundance that it should stand in need of much instauration and if that any be consumed yet notwithstanding that is laid up in another place seeing that it is not removed out of the Earth Proposition IX Whether that Water be the fresher in the Ocean by how much it is nigher the bottom and why in some parts of the Ocean fresh Water is found in the bottom Of the freshness of Water in the Sea Unto the first I Answer That experience doth not testifie concerning that sweetness but in some places of which the other Question speaketh that in these places in the bottom of the Sea are Fountains of fresh water I have sufficiently said for it cannot naturally be that the more Salt-water should exist above water less Salt seeing that that is more heavy Those places of the Sea where fresh water is found to spring at the bottom may be collected by those that are studious from the Writers of Geography Proposition X. The Water of the Ocean becometh less salt by how much it is nearer the Poles and on the contrary the more salt by how much it is more near the Aequator or Torrid Zone Although this may be understood of most parts of the Ocean yet the Proposition admitteth of some exceptions The cause of this inequality in saltness is sixfold The Causes of the inequality of the saltness of the Sea in different places 1. That the heat of the Sun in the Torrid Zone lifteth up more vapours from the Ocean into the Clouds than in the Northern places which are the vapours of fresh-water because that the particles of Salt by reason of their gravity are not so easily lifted up Seeing therefore that from the Water of the Ocean of the Torrid Zone or where the place is more near the Torrid Zone so much the vapours are separated by the heat of the Sun thence it cometh to pass that the water that is lest is found more salt there than in the Northern places where there is not so much fresh-water separated by reason of the weak heat of the Sun The 2d Cause 2. The second Cause is the heat or cold of the water for the same numerical water or salt meat as also pickled meat sauce and the like afford a more sensible saltness to the tast when they are eaten hot than when cold for the heat or particles of the fire do move and render the particles of the salt contained in such meat more acute and separates them from the admixtures whence they bite and prick the Tongue more sharply Now because the water of the Ocean is the more hot by how much it is nigher the Aequator or the parallels of the Sun at every day and contrariwise the more cold by how much it is more near the Pole thence it followeth that waters though they should contain the same quantity of salt yet they must seem and appear so much the salter to the tast by how much they are nearer to the Torrid Zone and by how much they are more near the Pole by so much they have less sensible Salt The 3d Cause 3. The third Cause is the more or less quantity of Salt in the diverse parts of the Channel of the Ocean for as we find in the parts of the Earth that there are not pits of Salt in them all neither where they are found is there the like quantity of Salt must be held concerning the part of the Earth that the Sea washeth or covereth that is the Channel or the Shoars where there is therefore most quantity of Salt or Mineral in the bottom or shoar of the Ocean there the water is more salt because that it is impregnated with a greater quantity of Salt So the Isle of Ormus consisteth all of Salt therefore the adjacent Ocean hath very Salt waters But whether there be greater plenty of Salt in the Channel and shoars of the Ocean in the Torrid Zone or more saline Mines than in the North is very doubtful by reason of the want of observation yet it seemeth probable unto some that there is greater quantity of Salt in those places by reason of the greater heat of the Sun by which the parts of the water are separated from the Terrestrial and
and shoars of the Earth and the frequent observations of Mathematicians made on Towers or shoars testifie it And as for the observation of Olearius that seemeth to cause no small difficulty here for that the Caspian Sea is no higher than the vicine Lands much less than the Mountains is collected from hence viz. that many Rivers do exonerate themselves into the Sea therefore we must say that refraction obstructed the observation of Olearius and caused the water of the Sea to appear higher than in truth it was and peradventure the waves of the Sea encreased the cause and the Mountain that he ascended was none of the highest Some discovering the weakness of this Argument bring this that the natural place of water is above the Earth and therefore that it must cover the whole Earth because that it is higher than the Earth Now by reason that it is impeded from its natural place by the Mountains above the Earth arising towards the Mediterranean places therefore that part of the Ocean which ought to be where the Mountains and Elevated parts of the Earth are seeing that it is not in its natural place doth press down the subjected water which indeed is in its natural place but yet is driven or pressed to the bottom by the Superiour water which is not in its natural place where when it findeth no way neither can give place it retireth towards the sides and passeth under the Roots of the Mountains where being collected as in a Cistern it is squeezed out by the water of the Ocean pressing towards the vertex of the Mountain No other than in a Vessel which hath on the side a Funnel touching the very bottom of the Vessel from whence we infuse water or other liquor into Glasses If I say we drop in a stone into such a Vessel full or half full of liquor the liquor flieth out through the Orifice of the Funnel This is the subtilty of Scaliger but in truth it is very thick For water is not expelled so from the bottom of Mountainous places towards the vortex because that experience testifieth the contrary in Trenches and if that were so all Spring waters should be salt moreover it is false that he assumeth that part of the water is not in its natural place and therefore presseth down the subjected part for this is taken up gratis and contrary to experience because that the water presseth not down the subjected part except when it is higher than the vicine water and therefore where the Superficies of the Ocean is Spherical it resteth but if that any motion were made from the pressure this would drive the water of the Sea to the Coast where the place is more broad not through the small Caverns of the Earth Now it is certain that water floweth in from the bottom of the Sea through the great Caverns but they make not the Fountain fresh because they take not away the saltness of the water I think not the solution of the Argument to be difficult if that we consider how water cometh to the Fountain viz. not from any Channel from the bottom of the Sea or foot of the Mountain for so it would retain its saltness but by or through a continual progression of the watery particles or a creeping in the Terrestial matter to the places adjacent to the Fountain where at length it is gathered into drops by reason of the cavity and continual succession of the water and so causeth a Spring Veins of water in the bowels of the earth For this we find in the Earth dug to a great depth that here and there drops of water do consist and are forced by those that are nigh so that a little Rivulet is made which are termed Veins of water Many such Rivulets if collected into one Cavity make a Fountain as those persons well known that are skilled in making of Fountains or Aquiducts or Wells For in Wells water is collected from many drops which meet together in the bottom of the well from the adjacent Earth And those that make Aquiducts bring the water by gutters and trenches into one place so that the drops may fall from the higher places into the Cavity But if that you object that many Fountains bubble up in the midst of stones by reason of which it is not probable that the watery particles should so creep forwards to that I Answer that this confirmeth our Opinion For those stones do not go through from the top to the foot of the Mountain at least in those Mountains where the Fountains are found but only occupy the Superficies of the Mountain and a certain small profundity within the Earth of the Mountain is more soft or less stony or at least such as may receive and attract water Therefore when by penetration it is come to the stony part because that it can penetrate no farther there it standeth and is collected into drops and maketh a springing Fountain between the stony parts to wit if that a passage be granted and that the Mountains and Rocks of the Isle of St. Helena and almost of all Islands are not within so rocky and hard is collected from hence that almost all those Mountains have sometimes burned or at the least smoaked which is discovered from the Ashes on the Earth and also the Brimstone or Sulphur found in those places add moreover what we observed before that the spring of the water is not alwaies there where it seemeh to be but floweth from some higher place through a subterraneous passage to the Fountain and so causeth the water to leap up with some force which I suppose to be done in many Fountains and the more if we consider that fire is moved also downwards by reason of the continuation of the matter when in truth if that the same be free it tendeth upwards So if you put the end of a long piece of Iron in the fire this will penetrate through the whole Iron untill it come to the other extream although this other extremity doth not tend upwards but downwards The second Argument answered So much for the first Argument unto the second I answer that a reason may be given why the Sea water should not penetrate so much into the Earth towards the Center as towards the Mountains viz. because the Earth is there more full of Mettals and hard as experience testifieth but where it is not so hard there the water penetrateth and therefore we deny not but that Rivers or at least sweet or salt Lakes may be found beneath the bottom of the Sea within the Earth towards the Center where any such Cavity is But because that there are few such Cavities and that every where the Earth is Metallous and hard beneath the bottom of the Sea therefore it cannot continually imbibe water but when it is full it ceaseth to imbibe any more neither doth it receive more Therefore then the water glideth towards higher places unto the motion
and Vitriol therefore they dissolve the particles of Iron and by degrees take away from it which whilst that they do the Copper particles of the water are reposed in the place of the Iron ones taken away or there adhere whilst that they glide with the runing water The reason of those that change wood into stone are these 1. Some do not change the wood it self into stone but earthy stony and saline particles contained in the water do apply themselves to the wood and so as it were cover the wood with a stony crust and do not really change it 2. Some do not change the wood into stone but cause a stony hardness to the wood which some mineral waters may possibly do 3. If that some waters have truly changed wood into stone I conceive it to be done after this manner that chief difference is found by sight between the wood and the stone that in the wood there are certain long Fibres or Veins unto which the particles do cohere and those are less thick but in stone the particles are like unto Atoms without any certain extension into long Fibres If that therefore any water dissolve and as it were grind the particles cohering in the wood according to a long line so that now they do no more cohere after this mode but yet are more condensed there will be no more any great difference between the wood and stone as may be observed by our Eyes yet it is probable that these mineral waters communicate some substance to the wood it self There are other waters whose faculty is reported to be able to change the colours in the hair of man or beast Proposition XIII To explain the cause of poisonous and death-causing waters and to reckon up the places where they are Of poisonous waters Such is the Lake Asphaltites by reason of its Arsenical Bitumen In times past famous was the Fountain of Terracina which was called Neptunicus in the Region of the Volsci of which those that drank were deprived of their lives therefore it was filled up with stones by the Inhabitants In Thessalia a Fountain springeth of which no Cattle drink nor no kind of Beast approacheth Famous or rather infamous is the water which in the Region of Arcadia called Nonacris the Ancients write to drop exceeding cold from stony Rocks therefore called the Infernal and Stygian water which no vessel either of silver brass or iron could be preserved in without breaking And by this water Historians report that Alexander the Great was killed by Jolla Son of Antipater and that not without the infamy of Aristotle At this day many mortiferous waters are found in the Places or Regions called the Alpes but most of them are stopped with stones which is the reason that so few death-causing Fountains are known Now the generation of such water is if the water glide or flow through Arsenical Mercurial or Antimonial Earths and are impregnated with their fumes For as the smoak or fume of Arsnick killeth living creatures so waters impregnated with such a fume do the same Proposition XIV To explain the generation of coloured waters and their differences and to enumerate the places of the Earth in which they are found At Chinen in France water floweth from a Cave of somewhat a yellowish colour Of coloured waters In the Kingdom of Congo a Riveret floweth of a red colour into the Sea In some places waters flow of a black of a green and such like colours but they are but few The cause of the colour of these waters is that they glide or run from lands before they come to the Fountain Proposition XV. To explain the generation of Salt-waters and to reckon up the places of the Earth in which they are found Of the generation of Salt-waters The generation is twofold 1. From the Ocean they come through Subterraneous passages and flow to the Superficies of the Earth 2. They are generated of a Salt contained in the Earth such as is found in many places through which whilst the water glideth it conceiveth Saline particles and spirits before that it arrive at the Spring Great is the plenty and that known to every one of Salt Fountains We have spoken in the preceding Chapter and this matter is easily known by reason of the abundance of Salt almost every where lying hidden in the Earth seeing that Salt it self is an Element Proposition XVI To explain the cause of Ebullient Fountains and those that break out with a great spirit and wind and to enumerate the places of the Earth wherein they are found The cause is partly a Sulphureous spirit and partly a Nitrous spirit commixed with water in the Earth Of ebullient Fountains if that it be a Sulphureous spirit the waters are hot if Nitrous cold For neither are all the waters which ebulliate like to those that are hot hot but many of them are cold as is evident from that near to Culma called a mad water of which we have spoken in the Twelfth Proposition The River Tamayus in Galaecia ariseth from a Lake in its rising for some months of the year it sendeth forth a mighty noise In Japan that wonderful hot Fountain of which we have spoken in the Eighth Proposition not above twice every day breaketh forth for the most part for one hour now when that the water beginneth to flow it is carried with so great a force and vehemency of wind that it moveth the vast stones incumbent on the Well and leapeth to the height of three or four Ells with so great a noise like unto the discharge of Cannon In Westphalia a Fountain breaketh forth tearmed Bolderborn from its noise Most of the Spaws and Baths break forth with an abundance of wind and ebulliate as if they boyled a Sulphureous spirit causeth this in the Baths and in the Spaws the Spirits of Vitriol Nitre and the like Proposition XVII To enumerate the kinds of waters which have other certain wonderful properties and to explain the causes of them Unto this Classis all others ought to be reduced which cannot conveniently be referred unto the former sorts Other kinds of waters of wonderful properties So there is a Fountain in Portugal tearmed Cadina devouring all that is cast into it Also in times past there was another near to it rejecting all things cast into it but this latter is obstructed In Andalusia not far from the City Guadiana Eusebius Nierenburgius relateth that there is a Lake which sheweth the Seasons or Tempest for when that this is approaching it maketh an horrible noise which is oftentimes heard for the space of 18 or 20 miles In Calice in France is a Well into which if that a stone is cast in a noise will be heard like Thunder in the cavities of the Well In the Alpes are Wells whose water being drank off contracteth swellings of a great bigness hanging from their necks In the Kingdom of Granada at the Town Antiquarius is
force being broken the Terrestrial parts of the water subside and sink and augment the Altitude of the banks of Sand whence it cometh to pass that the impetus of the Ocean is more and more broken and therefore more Terrestrial matter subsideth so that the ridges being augmented they exclude the Ocean or make the Channel more shallow 2. It conduceth much to the Augmentation of the shoars if that the shoars be sandy and stony that the Ocean runing by can separate or take away little with it so that when it can take away nothing it always leaveth some particles that in progress of time the shoars become more high and force or stop the Ocean from its accustomed place 3. If that another adjacent shoar hath less solid Earth that is light and full of Caverns for the Ocean carrieth the dissolved and broken parts of Earth to the vicine shoars 4. If that great Rivers discharge themselves by the shoar into that Sea for these Rivers carrying with them much Sand and Mud or Gravel when that they arrive to the mouth and shoar where they endeavour to exonerate themselves into the Sea they leave it partly because the Channel is there more broad and partly because that the Sea resisteth the flux of them and this is chiefly observed in Regions which Rivers overflow every year 5. If that frequent Winds blow from the Sea to the shoar and the shoar be rocky and firm not sandy 6. If that the flux of the Sea be swift and vehement and the reflux slow and gentle for the gentle reflux taketh not away the matter that the swift flux brought but suffereth it to sink If that the shoar descendeth obliquely into the Sea for a long space and bend not down directly and perpendicularly for so the violence of the Sea decreaseth and leaveth the matter behind The Land of Aegypt caused by the Nile There are many places of the Earth which it is evident were formerly taken up by the Ocean Where Aegypt is in time past was the Sea as is proved by the testimony of the Ancients and by Experience at this day For the Nile flowing from the remote Regions of Aethiopia and every year entring the Channel where it swelleth it expandeth it self through all Aegypt where when the force of the River ceaseth the Mud sinketh and also the Terrestrial matter which the swift course of the River brought in and so Aegypt becometh higher And before that so much matter was brought in by the Nile then the Sea covered the Land of Aegypt but now the Sea is not admitted by reason of the height Of this Aristotle and Others are Witnesses his words are these This place and the whole Region of Aegypt which was only made by the River seemeth always to become more dry and because that the Marishes by degrees drying up the adjacent places began to be inhabited the length of time obliterated the beginning of it therefore all the mouths of the Nile except that of Canopus seem to be made by the Industry of Man and not by the River Moreover all Aegypt anciently consisted of a City called Thebes as is very manifest which Homer also declareth who flourished as I have said after this Mutation For he maketh mention of that place as if that Memphis as yet had no Being or at least not so big Seneca here explaineth it more clearly All Aegypt saith he is made up of Mud for if that we may credit Homer Pharos was so far from the Continent as that a Ship with a full spread Sail could harldly measure or encompass it in an whole day but it is now adjoyned to the Continent for the Nile flowing muddy and troubled and drawing much Mud with it and so adding to it the former Lands hath made Aegypt larger by an Annual increase Hence the soil is muddy and fat neither hath it any Intervals in it but hath increased to a solidity The Rivers Ganges and Indus by their Inundations both cause also Land Ganges and Indus in India both famous Rivers have caused the same by their Inundations that the Nile hath also Rio de la Plata in Brazil And it is probable that China was generated or at least augmented after the same mode by reason that a violent River which they call the Yellow River flowing from Tartary into China often overflowing although not in an Anniversary time hath so much Sand and Gravel that it maketh the third part of its water These Examples demonstrate the cause laid down in the fourth place viz. why Rivers should cause the Sea to forsake the Shoar but the Sea it self is also oftentimes the cause of its departure in divers Regions viz. whilst that it carrieth and layeth down the matter by which the Channel and Shoar acquire the greater Altitude and admit not the approach of the Sea so Holland Zeland and Gelderland were made for that the Ocean in time past possessed these Countries is known both from Ancient Histories or Monuments as also from the quality of the Soil it self The shells of Fishes found on the Clifts or higher parts of Gelderland not far from Noviomagus do sufficiently testifie the same as also shrubs and ouzey matter found in the profundity of the soil Add that the Sea is higher than the Land of these Regions and hath overflowed it and would cover it again if that it were not obstructed by banks of Sands and Ramparts Yet there are some that say they suppose that Holland and Zeland were brought from the Rhine and the Mosa which is not improbable Proposition X. To shew the Generation of Sandy-banks in the Sea and elsewhere The generation of Sandy banks We term those banks of Sand that are elevated above the Channel of the River to that height that they hinder the passage of Ships Neither do they differ from Rocks but that their parts do cohere and are condensated but the Sand-banks do not consist of parts very coherent But these words are oftentimes confounded The Sand-banks do either lie in the Channels of Rivers as many are in the Wolga and the Albis or at the mouths of Rivers which is frequent as in the Wolga and the Albis or on the Sea-shoar or amidst Seas The mode of the generation is the same by which we have said in the foregoing Propositions that the Channels of Rivers are dried and the Sea forsaketh the shoar for so oftentimes it cometh to pass that the Ocean before that it leaveth part of the Earth altogether first generateth this ridge of Sand not far from the shoar and so by degrees retreateth back and these banks become parts of the Continent After the same mode it hapneth in the Channels of Rivers before that they are wholly dried and forsaken by the water The most frequent cause is when Rivers are augmented by rain or dissolved snow and so run violently for then where their motion is more vehement and Channel more narrow they eat off the mud
either more thick or subtle than the former they are refracted where they have entered at this other Medium or deflect from a strait direct course to the sides The Explication is easie from a Vulgar Experiment Let any Vessel be taken and let a ball of Gold or Copper or Gold money be affixed to the bottom then depart back from the Vessel by reason of the obstacle of the sides of the Vessel you can no longer see the Money at the bottom Then pour water into the Vessel which being done you shall see again in the former distance the Money at the bottom From hence it followeth that seeing no Ray could directly come from the Money to the eye by reason of the interposition of the sides of the Vessel and yet afterwards the water being infused the Rays arrived at the eye It followeth I say from hence that the Rays proceeding from the Money where they enter into the Air from the water do deflect or are refracted from the direct way and being so refracted they arrive at the eye It is called refraction by reason that for this cause an Oar being partly in the water doth appear refracted or broken See Scheme So let the Center of the Earth be T L the eye in the superficies let d r f p be the superficies of the Atmosphere or Air. Therefore no ray can directly arrive at the eye L because it is beneath L f g for other inferiour rays would fall in on the tumor of the Earth L o. Wherefore no Star can appear in a direct ray until it come to the Horizontal line L f g And the Stars appear before viz. whilst that they are yet beneath L g for Example in S and yet from S to the eye L no ray can directly come because that it should first fall on L o. Therefore of necessity the ray which cometh from the Star S to the eye L is not a direct but a refracted ray viz. L f which refracted ray is propogated from the incident ray S f to wit S f falling from the Aether on the more thick Medium viz. the Atmosphere in f is refracted and becometh f L when that it was direct in n And so the Star appeareth before that it could truly appear by a direct ray that is before that it arriveth at the Horizontal line L f g. So a Star being in S is not seen by the direct ray S L but by the refract r L whose incident ray is s r and direct r m and therefore the Star S appeareth higher by reason of refraction than it is and in another place it appeareth high in the Arch x g or in the Angle r l g as if it were in x when indeed it is in s For this is the nature of refractions that the rays falling from a more rarified medium on a more thick as from the Aether upon the Air they become refracted or decline towards the perpendicular drawn through the point of incidency or falling into the superficies of the incidency or medium For Example the ray S f falleth in from the Aether on the Air f is the point of the incidency T f the perpendicular drawn through f to the superficies d r f p therefore the ray S f n shall be refracted f T that of f n may be made f L. So of r m is made r L but the contrary is when that the rays proceed from the water to the Air for then they more recede from the perpendicular line drawn Lastly this also is the nature of refractions that the rays falling in perpendicularly on the superficies of another medium are not refracted but only those that fall obliquely and not perpendicularly and by so much they are the more refracted by how much they fall in the less perpendicularly or by how much the more they depart from the perpendicular So the rays S T f T H d T are not refracted because that they are perpendicular on the superficies d r f p but the rays S f S r are refracted because that they fall obliquely and indeed S f more than S r. From whence it followeth which Experience also testifieth that by how much the Stars are more near the Horizon by so much the more they refract their rays by how much the higher by so much the less And Astronomers have observed that the refraction is insensible where the Star hath attained the altitude of 20 degrees not that there is no refraction but that it is very small And for many Examples the skilful in the Opticks and later Mathematicians have derived the Rule of refraction of all Rays falling in obliquely viz. that in every medium there is one constant account between the sign of the Angle falling in and the sign of the Angle refracted to wit the Angle n f T is termed the Angle of incidency L f T the Angle refracted n f L the Angle of refraction and so in the refraction of the ray s r m. Therefore as the sign of the Angle T f n is to the sign of the Angle T f L the same is the reason of the sign of the Angle T r m to the sign of the Angle T r L. Thence it followeth that if from observation we have the quantity of refraction to the elevation of one Ray we may thence know the quantity of the refraction of all others howsoever elevated Proposition XXII The Atmosphere or Air causeth the Sun or the rest of the Stars to be seen before that they arise in the Horizon also to appear for some small space of time after that they have set also that they appear higher than they are and in another place of the Heavens as long as that they are no higher than 20 degrees The Air causeth the Sun and Stars to be seen before they arise in the Horizon We have sufficiently explained the Cause in the precedent Proposition only we shall add some Experiences or Natural Phaenomenons When that the Dutch wintered in Nova Zembla the Sun appeared to them sooner by sixteen days than it was in the Horizon that is when that it was as yet depressed beneath the Horizon about four degrees and that in a serene Air. And famous Astronomers have found it out with Tycho Brahe that in our places the Morning-sky or Air being serene we may behold the Sun elevated above the Horizon 34 minutes when that as yet he is wholy under the Horizon yet so that his limbus or skirt doth enlighten the Horizon And the Sun seemeth to arise when that as yet he is depressed about 34 minutes beneath the Horizon to wit the Air of the place where we are being serene So the Spica Virginis a bright Star seemeth to rise to us when that yet he is depressed 32 minutes beneath the Horizon which is thence collected because is seemeth to arise when the Cauda Leonis is 34 degrees 30 minutes high and in the same quarter in which this Star of the
from the middle and sendeth forth rays it signifieth a moist and windy season 3. If that the Sun be pale in his setting but if it be red the Air will be quiet and serene the next day 4. If the Sun being pale setteth in black Clouds it signifieth a North-wind 5. If that the Moon be red like unto gold it is deemed a certain sign of a Wind according to the Verse Pallida Luna pluit rubicunda fiat alba serenat 6. A circle about the Moon 7. If that the Northern-horn or corner of the Moon appear more extended a North-wind is approaching 8. If that the Southern a South-wind is at hand 9. The rising of the Moon and the more noted Stars as of the Bear Orion and especially the Goats with the Sun 10. If the small Stars in Cancer termed Asellos be covered with a Cloud if the Northern of them be covered the Wind will be South if the Southern be covered it will be North. 11. For the most part Winds begin to blow when that the Wind ceaseth 12. When a certain noise and murmur like to an Ebullition is heard in the Sea 13. The Ancients also prognosticated from the Raven the Dolphin and other Animals 14. From fiery Meteors as from Lightning and Falling-Stars but not from the Ignes fatui Proposition XVIII Why in the Spring and Autumn the Winds are more frequent and blow with greater force than in the hot Summer or cold Winter Greater and more frequent Winds in Spring and Autumn than in Summer and cold VVinter In the Spring it is supposed to be partly by reason of the dissolving of Snow especially in Mountainous places partly because that the Pores of the Earth are then opened and send forth many exhalations partly because that the Air and Vapours are then more thin when that they were condensed in the Winter Add that for the most part in the Month before the beginning of the Spring and in the very Spring many Rays do fall by reason that humid Constellations then have possessed those houses of the Zodiack into which on the entrance of the Sun we account the beginning of the Spring and also in Autumn the frequent Rays and Exhalations are to be accounted the cause of the Winds as well as in the Spring by reason that a moderate heat proceeding from the Sun advanceth the Vapours and Exhalations yet such as are more thick and less attenuated But in the heat of Summer there are no Winds for the most part for the same reason by reason of which Rays are very seldom seen at that Season viz. because that the Sun overmuch attenuateth the Exhalations and doth not permit them so to conjoyn or meet in such a quantity as is required to the generation of the Winds Which cause is not general or always true and neither is it generally true that in the heat of Summer there are no Winds for here we are only to understand it concerning that which oftentimes happeneth But in the sharp Winter the winds are more rare and that by reason that both fewer Vapours are raised from the Earth and those also that are elevated are either condensed into Clouds or are so dissipated by Frost that they cause no wind Proposition XIX In what Altitude of the Air or in what Region of the Air the Winds begin to blow In what Region the Winds begin to blow There are some that suppose the winds not to exceed the lower Region of the Air because that they discover that the tops of the high Mountains as Olympus feel no Blasts But I question the Observation seeing that the Smoak cast forth from the top of Mount Aetna is discerned to be moved to and fro by the wind therefore I suppose that such a windy commotion may be caused also in the upper Region of the Air. Proposition XX. Vnto what space one and the same Wind may extend it self How far one and the same Wind may extend it self There is great diversity in this matter for the winds blowing from the East to the West under the torrid Zone seem to encompass the whole Earth and those also that blow either from the North or South for many days and long spaces are wont to accompany and follow Mariners The same seemeth true concerning collateral Lines but this diversity is because that the same wind is different in divers places as we have shewed in the Tenth Proposition in the end of the explication of the first cause CHAP. XXI Of the Winds in particular and Tempests IN the foregoing Chapter we have alledged the distribution and differences or rather the denominations of the Winds which they receive from the quarter from whence they blow or seem to blow which division also is accidental by reason that they are taken in respect of a certain place of the Earth unto which those Quarters are related Now in this Chapter we shall alledge the divisions and Phaenomena which are in a certain time of the year or else are proper to certain tracts of the Earth although that we desire to have more and those likewise more accurate Observations concerning these things But we will produce what we have collected with much labour from the Diaries of the Seamen Proposition I. One Wind is constant and another inconstant Of Winds constant and inconstant That is a constant wind which at the least for one or two hours bloweth from the same quarter That is an inconstant wind which sometimes bloweth and other some is changed into other winds blowing from other quarters The causes of the more or less duration of the same wind also of the swift immutation seemeth to be 1. if that it be from a general cause or from a cause less constant So Winds proceeding from the motion of the Air with the motion of the Sun in the torrid Zone are constant so those also that blow from the dissolving of the Snow especially in the Mountains 2. If that by chance there be no such vapours in other quarters which are apt to generate Winds 3. If that the circumambient Air about the Cloud of which the Winds are generated be more thick and granteth no passage to the Exhalations but if that the Air be not so thick or more relaxed and that few Vapours be here and there in divers places and quarters and lastly if that the general causes do cease then indeed the Winds are found variable which are for the most part gentle Proposition II. One Wind is general and another particular Of general and particular Winds The general Wind is termed by Mâ—riners a Passant wind which at many places at once in a long tract of Earth bloweth on the Sea almost for a whole year That is termed a particular on the contrary which bloweth not at once in many places for a whole year Now a general Wind is hindred 1. In the parts of the Sea near the Earth for here Vapours from other quarters do interpose
Sea and the like is in Guzurat but for very many Months when it beginneth to blow in Congo and Guzurat in September it continueth even to March The Anniversary wind of the Grecians which they call Ornithia or the Bridges wind this they say bloweth after the Vernal Aequinox the Sun ascending to the Vertex of the Europeans Proposition V. Why the Etesian winds blow not in Italy France Germany Persia and other Regions especially seeing that they are more near the Northern Mountains from whence we assert the Etesian winds of the Grecians Congo and Guzurat do arise and blow The Etesian winds blow not in all Regions though near the Northren Mountains The Question is of no small moment and I wish that we had more accurate Observations concerning this matter viz. the notations of the winds which at that time are observed in each Region whether in every Year the same never return Yet if that any thing must be said to the Question these seem convenient 1. We cannot deny but that the North wind often bloweth in our Canicular or Dog daies 2. That it is discovered less continual and in each year peradventure the Cause is the often blowing of other winds which hinder the discovery of the same 3. We may say that the Mountain from which this first resolution of the Snow begineth is scituated directly from Greece and therefore the first Canicular wind is carried hither but the Vapours are carried hither from the Snow of the other Mountains because that here they find a free passage made but I shall reject these my extemporay thoughts when that I shall see a better reason and more accurate Observations Proposition VI. Some winds are proper and almost perpetual to some place or tract of Land others are ceasing Places which have a certain wind at a fixed time Those places of the Earth are very few which have a certain wind at a fixed time viz. these 1. The places of the Torrid Zone especially of parts of the Pacifick and Aethiopick Sea scituate in the Zone enjoy a perpetual wind viz. an Oriental wind or its Collateral which they call a General wind as we have shewed in the second Proposition where we have treated largely of it Yea this wind is not so much to be reckoned amongst the proper winds but rather to be determined to be common to all places for although by accident it happeneth that it be not discerned in all places viz. because other winds blow more strong yet it is proper to some the Cause is alledged in the place cited 2. On the Coasts of Peru and part of Chili and to the adjacent Sea the South wind is almost perpetual and his Collateral wind at the West It beginneth at the 46 deg of Latitude and bloweth to Panama the American Isthmus and causeth that in few daies Ships arrive from Lima at Panama laden with Gold Silver c. But it requireth many daies sail from Panama to Lima. But this wind bloweth not in the Sea remote from the Coasts of Peru It is difficult to render the cause of this wind by reason that the South Land from whence it seemeth to blow is not yet known unto us Yet I think it probable that because that Mountains are found in it covered with perpetual Snow therefore the winds are generated from a continual resolution of them But I will not infect the mind of the Reader with these my suspicions or conjectures For peradventure the Snows which are found all the year long in the high Mountains at the Streights of Magellan are the cause of these winds but yet it may be Objected that those Mountains lie from the South towards the West declining from the South wherefore we shall leave this to a more diligent inquisition or a more full knowledge of the South Continent 3. At the Coasts of the Land of Magellan or Del Fugo about the Streight Le Mair continual or at least very frequent Westernly winds do blow and that with that force that they make the Trees to bend towards the East from their perpendicular rectitude neither is there any part of the Earth in which those Occidental winds so often blow but on the other part of the Streights Le Mair at the Coast of the South Land the South wind bloweth I can render no other cause of those Occidental winds but that I suppose them to be raised from Snow and Clouds in the South Continent which extendeth it self from the side of that Occidental Streight from the South towards the North. But these are doubtful and more diligently to be inquired after 4. On the Malabarian Coasts of India for almost the whole year the North and North-East winds blow the cause proceedeth from the resolution of the Snows of the Mountains of the Asiatick Sarmatia viz. Imaus or Caucasus from the Clouds on the other Mountains of Asia which are collected and press the subject Air. 5. In the Sea near to Guinea the North West wind is frequent and in the remote Sea the North East 6. In the middle passage between Japan and Liampo a Maritimate City of China even unto these are found Occidental winds which blow in Japan in November and December 7. At the Isle Guotou not far from the Isle Dos Cavallos in the Sea of China is a frequent South wind when that yet in the neighbouring Ocean a North wind is predominate Proposition VII Vnto these Periodical or state Winds appertain those also that are tearmed day Winds which in some Regions and at a certain time of the year blow for some hours every day Of Day Winds so called Now they are found to be twofold and that only in some Maritimate places for some blow from Mediterranean places to the Shore towards the Sea and others on the contrary from the Sea to the Shoars 1. On the Malabarian Coasts in the Summer season viz. from September to April the Terrestial winds or Terrinhos do blow from the twelfth hour of the night to the twelfth hour of the day now these winds are Eastern winds But from the twelfth hour of the day to the twelfth hour of the night the Sea wind or Viraconus to wit the West wind bloweth but this is very weak so that by its assistance the Ships can hardly arrive at the Shoar I suppose the cause of those Oriental winds from twelve at night to twelve in the day partly to be a general wind and partly Clouds on the Mountain Gatis But the cause of the Occidental Winds that blow from twelve in the day to twelve at night is the resolution of thick Clouds caused by the setting of the Sun which Clouds before by the Oriental wind were forced towards the West Out of those named Months the North wind predominateth also the East and North-East neither by reason of the often Tempests are these Terrestrial and Marine winds discerned 2. In Musulipatan a City on the Coasts of Charomandel these Terrinhos begin to blow
great concernment yet it is better to begin from the Aequator that all the places may lie in some Climate Proposition XV. To shew the use of the Table of the Climates 1. The Latitude of some place or Elevation of the Pole being given to know the quantity of the Longest day in that place and the Climate in which it lieth Let the given Elevation of the Pole be sought in the Table and on the opposite Region we shall find both the quantity of the Longest day as also the Climate and the Parallel If that the given Elevation cannot be found in the Table then take that Elevation which is less near or the like which is found in the Table From the Longitude of the Longest day of any place to know the Latude of the place and the Parallel and Climate 2. The Longitude of the Longest day of any place being given which any person hath observed or received by relation to know from thence the Latitude of that place the Parallel and the Climate in which that place lieth Enter the Table with the Latitude given and you shall see on the opposite Region both the Latitude and the Place demanded as also the Climate and Parallel 3. A Climate being given to determine the Longitude of the Longest day and the Elevation of the Pole This is facil from the very sight of the Table CHAP. XXVI Of the Light Heat Cold Rains in the diverse parts of the Earth or Zones and other properties of the Zones Proposition I. These Causes are efficacious to generate and procure Light Heat Cold and Rain with other Meteors in the places of the Earth and the vicine Air. Of the causes of Heat 1. THe more or less or no obliquity of the Rays of the Sun coming to or emitted on any place For the Rays falling perpendicular on any place cause great heat and the other Rays sliding obliquely have for that very reason a less power of heating by how much the obliquity of them is the greater that is by how much the more they decline from the perpendicular Ray. 2. The diurnal stay of the Sun above the Horizon of the place For the same heat maketh more hot and changeth the Air in a longer time than in a shorter 3. The depression of the Sun beneath the Horizon being more or less in the Night season For this difference of depression causeth that either more or less Light is perceived in the Air also more or less Heat Rain thick Clouds Hitherto belongeth the Twilight 4. The more or less Elevation of the Moon above the Horizon the more or less depression of the same beneath the Horizon the more or less Diurnal stay of the same above the Horizon The Causes are the same with those alledged in the three foregoing Paragraphs The Planets and fixed Stars raise Vapours c. in the Air. 5. The same may be said of fixed Stars especially of those more noted ones and of the five other Planets Saturn Jupiter Mars Venus and Mercury For they generate some light and heat in the Air although it be but little and change the Air divers ways and raise Vapours if that we may credit Astronomers 6. The propriety or species of the Earth of every place For where the Earth is more stony and rocky there for the most part it is more Cold than where it is sulphureous and fat and here again it is more fertilâ— Where there is much Sand and no Rivers there is greater Heat Fumes and Mists proceed from Lakes 7. Lakes or the Sea adjacent From thence also Fumes and Mists are raised more moist and frequent in the Air and the Rays are less powerfully reflected from the Sea than from the Earth 8. The scituation of Places For the Sun acteth otherwise on Mountains and Mountainous places than on Valleys and Plains Moreover Mountains hinder the free access of the Rays of the Sun to the subject places for to them the Vapours of the Air are in some sort attracted See Chap. 20. whence the Mountains change the seasons of the adjacent places as Heat Rain and the like For these would be otherwise in the Subject places if that the Mountains were absent The Winds cause difference in the weather 9. The Winds especially the general So the Etesian winds temperate and allay the Canicular heat A general Wind in the Torrid Zone especially the Subsolan winds in Brasilia render the Heat temperate when in Africa which is Occidental the Heat is vehement because these places feel not so general a Wind. The Northern winds are cold and dry the Southern warm and moist in our places 10. Clouds Rain and Fogs take away and diminish light and heat I suppose that there are not many causes of this variety in light and heat c. which is observed in divers places of the Earth or also in the same places but yet in a different time or season Proposition II. How are the Seasons of the year Spring Summer Autumn and Winter to be defined The four Seasons of the Year Although in Sciences we ought not to contend and dispute concerning Definitions yet because certain Homonymes or Likenesses do here occur without the Explication of which there will arise much confusion in the following Doctrine therefore I will so propose this Question that you may the more cautiously avoid this Homonyme that they may not be deceived and intangled by the same The Question comprehendeth two difficulties first Whether these Seasons ought to be defined from the entrance of the Sun and his stay in certain sings of the Ecliptick and Zodiack According to Astronomers and Astrologers For so Astronomers and Astrologers commonly do saying that that is the Spring whilst the Sun moveth from the first degree of Aries to the first of Cancer that is Summer whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Cancer to the first of Libra that is Autumn whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Libra to the first of Capricorn and that is Winter whilst the Sun moveth from the first of Capricorn to the first degree of Aries Now it is manifest that these Definitions are not general and agreeable to all places because they are only of force in the Northern places scituated from the Aequator towards the Pole Artick and not in the Southern so that for these Definitions the same persons bring Definitions contrary to the former saying that in these places the Spring beginneth from the first degree of Libra proceeding unto the first of Capricorn the Summer from the first of Capricorn to the first of Aries the Autumn from the first of Aries to the first of Cancer and the Winter from the first of Cancer to the first of Libra But from thence it would follow that those Seasons cannot possibly be defined which is false and Generals ought to be defined by Generals Secondly Definitions so made cannot have place in the places of the Torrid Zone
again opposite four days of the year in two of which the Sun shall obtain a middle distance from the place given if therefore the place given be North take two of those four days whereof one happeneth between the 21 of December and the 21 of March this shall be the entrance of the Spring the other between the 21 of September and the 21 of December this shall be the entrance of Autumn But if the place given be South from those four days you must take the day between the 21 of June and the 21 of September for the entrance of the Spring and for the beginning of Autumn that which happeneth between the 21 of March and the 21 of June The beginning of Winter shall be the 21 of June if the place be South but if North the 21 of December 3. If the place given be between the Aequator and the eighth degree of Latitude it shall have two Summers and two Spring seasons besides Autumn and Winter except peradventure we will cast away that second Spring which is intermedial between the two Summers as we said in the end of the preceeding Proposition and attribute a continual Summer to that time which if you do we must act no otherwise with the given place than in the former Mode If we will attribute two Summers and two Springs to it as the definitions of Summer and Spring accurately observed do require we shall first act by the first Mode as in the former Theorems viz. we shall find the entrance of Summer and Winter and except the four days of moderate distance found in the Table of those four those two which we advised to take in the former Mode for the entrance of the Spring and Autumn here again we shall take on the same conditions but of the other two days that only which is proximate to the day of the Summer shall be taken For this will shew the end of the Summer and the beginning of the second Spring but for the day of the second Summer another day of the three remaining shall be taken in that Area from which the beginning of the first Summer was taken viz. that which is distant by an equal number of days from the 21 of June and the 21 of Capricorn if the place be South the first day of the Summer So the days shall be found in which the Summer the Spring Autumn and the Winter do begin and end in the places of the Torrid Stone Proposition V. In the places in the temperate and frigid Zones the four seasons of the year are almost equal or consist of an equal number of days But in the places of the Torrid Zone they are unequal Neither are only the times of the divers seasons unequal but also the time of the season in the divers places of the Zones is unequal The seasons of the year in the places in the Temperate and Frigid Zone are equal 1. For the places of the temperate and frigid Zones what I have said is easily demonstrated For seeing that the Sun in every time of those four quarters of the Year runs through three Signs therefore the times of the Spring Summer Autumn and the Winter shall be equal or of equal days except some days viz. five in which the Summer and four in which the Spring of the Northern places exceed the Autumn and the Winter but in the Southern places it is otherwise for Autumn and Winter exceed the Spring and Summer which as we have shewed before proceedeth from the excentricity of the Sun 2. In places lying under the Aequator there are two Summers as also other Seasons but hoth short as also both the Springs viz. each Summer and each Spring hath only 32 days which is 64 days but the Autumns and Winters are longer viz. 55 days which is 110 days 3. In the places of the Torrid Zone by how much the less they are remote from the Aequator by so much the more they have the longer Summer the less Winter and more or less moderate Autumn and Spring for in places not remote above 10 degrees from the Aequator the Summer continueth six Months Now the greatness of the Summer Autumn Winter and Spring is known by the preceeding Proposition What hath hitherto been said is only to be understood concerning the Celestial Seasons that is those which depend on a Celestial Cause or from the access or recess of the Sun for from this alone cometh not light heat and cold as we have said in some places before therefore we shall consider the other causes in the following Propositions Proposition VI. In places of the Tornid Zone as the Sun by day is very near the Vertex so on the contrary by night he is beneath the Horizon Of the Motion of the Sun in places of the Torrid Frigid and Temperate Zones and very much removed from the Vertex of those places so that those places by night lye almost in the middle shadow of the Earth neither can the Air possibly any wayes be warmed by the Suns rayes by frequent reflection In places of the Frigid Zone as the Sun by day is not very nigh the Vertex so by night he doth not profoundly remain beneath the Horizon but for the greatest part of the night doth so turn round beneath the Horizon that many rayes from him by reflection do penetrate into the Air. In places of the Temperate Zone as the Sun by day cometh to the Vertex of those places by a moderate Vicinity so by night by an easie distance he is depressed beneath the Horizon so that some rayes at least are in the Air. To shew this by the Globe first let the Pole be elevated for some place scituated in the Torrid Zone or rather let the Pole be placed in the Horizon it self that the places of the Aequator may be in the Vertex of the Horizon or that the wooden Horizon may become the Horizon of the places of the Aequator then consider the depression of the Parallels which the Sun describeth by his circumrotation beneath the Horizon and the truth of the member of this Proposition will appear Then let the Pole be elevated for the places of the Frigid Zone or let the Poles be placed in the Vertex of the Horizon and the Parallels of the Sun beneath the Horizon from the first degree of Libra to the first of Aries being considered it will again be manifest that they are very little depressed below the Horizon And so we have shewed the second member or part of this Proposition Lastly let the Pole be elevated for the Latitude of any place scituated in the Temperate Zone and the depression of the Parallels beneath the Horizon again being considered the third part of this Proposition will be proved Proposition VII A place being given in the Globe and the day of the year to find the Longitude of the Crepusculum or Twilight in the place given at the day given That time is
the Seasons in many places of the Torrid Zone are contrary to the motion of the Sun viz. that it is Summer there when the Sun is most distant and Winter when he is nearest yea vertical to the Vertex Therefore we have distinguished the Seasons into Celestial and Terrestrial We have shewed heretofore and that in the third and fourth Proposition how any place being given in that Torrid Zone the Months of the year are to be found in which the place ought to have Summer Spring Autumn and Winter if we have regard to the access and recess of the Sun that is we have taught to design the times of the Celestial Seasons But seeing that in many places of this Zone the forementioned Seasons do not happen in those Months but in others and that in divers places in a different time therefore the times of the Terrestrial seasons must be taken not from the Heaven or a certain method but from the experience made in those places and as much as possible the cause of every one of them why they repugn the Celestial cause must be explicated viz. from those 10 causes which we have laid down in the first Proposition 〈◊〉 this therefore ought first to be known that the Winter in the Torrid Zone doth rage with cold and frost but rather with raines and is to be defined by a lesser heat then that in the time of the Summer Farther in many places of the Torrid Zone they reckon not four but two seasons of the year viz. Summer and Winter and these are not distinguished by heat and cold but chiefly by siccity and humidiy for in the Winter they have often greater heat than in their Summer with a shortness of respiration because the rain and the Clouds press the Calid Air downwards But the Spring and Autumn are not to be found by so manifest signs or differences We shall begin our Narration from that part of Africa which lyeth under the Torrid Zone and proceeding towards the East with Brazilia we shall finish the whole Torrid Zone seated in the West measured by us The Regions of the Occidental shore of Africa from the Tropick of Cancer to Cape verd that is distant 14 degrees from the Aequator towards the North are all abounding both with Corn and variety of Fruit there are also heards of Cattell and flocks of Sheep in great abundance The Inhabitants are of a great strength the heat of the Air a little exceedeth Mediocrity so that the Inhabitants go naked except the Noble and those that are rich whose clothing is a Linnen Cloth The cause of this fertility and temperate Air contrary to the custom of the Torrid Zone is First many Rivers of which the chief are Senega and Gambea before they discharge themselves into the neighbouring Sea they water those Regions and render the Air more humid and frigid Secondly the vicinity of the Sea which affordeth humid vapours and somewhat cold Winds How the Seasons of the year have themselves in this place and what months of the year Summer and Winter happen and are vigorous I have not found noted by Writers which is to be imputed to their negligence and sloth Yet in one Itinerary I have read that in one of the Islands which lye not far from the Promontary of Cape verd by name Salinae or the Hesperides in one of them I say called St. Vincents the Latitude is 16 degrees the watery months that is Winter are August September November December January even to February This time almost agreeth with the Celestial cause for in the months of May June and July because the Sun is very near or else vertical to that place therefore it maketh the Celestial Summer and here the Terrestrial agreeth with it for then they have a greater heat and dry Air without Rain In the months of February March and April is their Spring be-because the Sun is moved from a moderate distance to a lesser therefore they are then without rains and have a moderate heat The months of August September and October are to be ascribed to Autumn by reason of the rains although it ought to begin latter because the Sun in August hath not yet returned from his least distance to his mean Lastly the months November December and January are Winter because the Sun hath then the greatest distance from their Vertex and then they find more and longer continuing rains with some cold but this is not to be observed every year though most years But how the seasons are in the Continent of Africa is not related except that concerning the shore of Sierra Leon it is contrary as we shall now speak 2. Now succed the Regions of the Coast of Africa which look towards the South and extend themselves from the Promontory of Cape Verd to the curvature or bending part of Africa that is from the West to East These Regions are termed by one name Guiny although others attribute this term only to one part Now they lie in the Torrid Northern Zone 3.4 and more degrees from the Aequator In these Regions there is a continual heat of the Air without any intervening Cold yet they attribute some months to the Summer and some to the Winter I think the same must be understood of the former Western Coast for in the Regions of the Shore called Sierra Leon which is removed above 9 degrees from the Aequator towards the North as also in many Tracts of Guiny they ascribe the months March April May June and July to Winter especially the three first by reason that on these months there fall frequent and almost continual rains hot or warm great Thunders and Lightnings and so great Storms rage without violent Winds that none can easily conceive them See Chap. 21. who hath not had experience of them How they rage I have already spoken also in these months the Fields lie Barren but when these Stormy months are expired then they dig up the dry Earth which hath sucked up the great Rains in the said wet months and mix stamped and bruised Coals instead of manuring and so for the space of 10 days suffer the Earth to putrify and then they sow their Seed There is here so great an heat of the Air joyned with humidity by reason of the propinquity of the Sea that the Fish which are taken stink if kept undressed half a day Therefore in these places the Winter shall be in April May and June when the Storms and Rains rage The Spring in July August and September the Summer in October November and December and the Autumn in January February and March where the Rains and Storms do begin Now all these times of the Seasons in those places are contrary to the Celestial cause or motion of the Sun for in the months of May June and July great heat ought to be there because then the Sun is then vertical or near the Vertex which the heat or warmness of the Rain also
the Brazilians in the months of October and February and striketh the Earth with reflex raies at most acute Angles Which diversity of these Regions promiseth the Inhabitants perpetual health by reason of the often calms and the Air quelling all noxious heats Hence it is easy to dollect that the seasons of the year do not so much depend immediately on the Sun and his motion as on the species of the Winds the diversity of aspects of the Stars the quality and peculiar scituation of the Region Moreover in these Mediterranean Regions towards the West the nights are more cold than in the Maritim so much some times that the Frost seizeth on the very hairs of the Peoples In the same months from the East about the Ocean is Summer and Siccity No Islands are opposite to Brazilia from the West beyond the ridges of the Mountains and the Marshes of Brazilia is the Winter Fogs and Rain Oftentimes the Heavens may be seen covered with vast Clouds from the East towards the West but those again very thin except in the days of the Rain the Sun both rising and setting may be beheld with fixed eyes for there is a wonderful serenity on every side especially towards the evening which never afordeth any Vapours or Clouds to the succeeding Moon but renders the night so clear that the old and new Moon may be seen in one and the same day and letters may be well read it the quarter Moon The Aether in respect of the diversity of the Planets other inseriour causes acceding receiveth its distemperature for the Heaven about evening is bright with Lightning without Thunder in the most dry and serene season The drops of Rain are very great and fall with great violence which is wont to be preceeded by a suffocative warmness The Dew here is more fruitful than that of Europe being impregnated with much Winter and therefore is more penetrating and thin especially in Summer which is manifest in all Mettals and in Iron especially which it easily eateth up without the assistance of any Clouds The Meadows and open Fields do less wax green in the Summer but more especially in the Pluvial months although the Earth then seemed somewhat more sad to the Inhabitants and the places unfit for Tillage afford Pasture See Piso All the Lands of Brazilia arise into moderate and pleasant Hills there are no Mountains of any great hight in the Coasts but yet some are discovered afar off in the Solitudes among the barren hills yet not every where but with some intervals of Miles the Valleys are interposed every one irrigated with some small Rivers and for that reason are not only fertil in the pluvial months but also in those of the Summer The Hills in the Summer months are steril by reason of the heat of the Sun so that they wither and Grass doth not only die on them but sometimes the Trees also It very seldom raineth throughout the whole day and night and for some continual days very seldom without intermission the Pluvial months do a little differ In the year 1640. as Marriners have observed there were 7 Pluvial months viz February March April May June July and August But most and almost continually from April May and June In the year 1642. the most Pluvial months six viz. March April May June July and August But the account of the other years was not much different Now these observations are to be taken only for one place and not for all the places in Brazilia Hence it is manifest that the Summer and Winter of Brazilia answereth to the Celestial account seeing that in the greatest distance of the Sun they have Rain and in the least and moderate towards the South they have heat Yet there are not a few irregularities the cause of which are to be sought from the scituation of the Winds and Earth The six rainy months are May June July August September and October 18. This is enough for the Southern America in the Northern it is otherwise For in the Province of Nicaragua it raineth for six months and the other six months it is Summer and dry weather so that passengers may travel in the night This now is contrary to the Celestial course for in the wet months for in May June and so on to November the Sun is vertical or near the Vertex unto these places so that then they should have Summer and Siccity and not Rain In November and December it is very distant therefore they should there have Rain Thus have we declared the Seasons of the chief places of the whole Torrid Zone from which being compared one with another we collect 1. That in some places the cold is scarse sensible in some part of the year and therefore the Winter is rather to be defined by the Rains than by cold in those places 2. In some places the cold is sufficiently sensible 3. In the night time especially in the last quarter the Air is discovered to be very cold by reason of the depression of the Sun beneath the Horizon 4. That it is not the least cause of the tolerable heat and that those Regions are inhabited viz. that no days are there long but almost equal to the night for if the days were as long there the Sun remaining above the Horizon as in the places of the Temperate and Frigid Zones then doubtless they would be uninhabited 5. That the Winds do much diminish the heat of the Sun 6. That places which ly in one and the same Climate have the Summer and Winter in divers times although they be very near to one another 7. That those places which have Siccity and Humidity contrary to the access and recess of the Sun are so scituated that on the East they have Ridges of Mountains and that they regard the West Peru excepted 8. That the Seasons observe no certain rule in the places of the Torrid Zone 9. That although most of the Inhabitants divide the year into two Seasons which is likewise observed by many Writers to wit a Pluvial and Dry Season yet it may aptly be divided into four so that they may not only have a Summer and a Winter but also a Spring and an Autumn For as in our parts the Spring approacheth near the nature of Summer and the Autumn of Winter so also the dry places of the Torrid Zone may be divided 10. And lastly in some places there is a continual Harvest in some only in two parts of the year and in others only in one part of the year Proposition XII To shew how the four Seasons of the year are made c. in the places of the Temperate Zones Of the seasons of the year in places lying in the Temperate Zones 1. In these places that cause which we have placed in the first place amongst the causes of the Seasons in the first Proposition of this Chapter is so potent in respect of the other causes that that
above almost maketh up and moderateth them To wit in the Regions of the Northern Temperate Zone it is Spring and Summer the Sun going from Aries by Cancer to Libra because then he is more near them Then the Sun going from Libra through Capricorn to Aries it is Autumn and Winter But in the Southern Temperate Zone the matter is contrary neither can those other causes altogether disable the force of this first and induce a new course of the seasons and be able to alter the times as in the Torrid Zone 2. Yet those Seasons of divers places vary so that in one place there may be more Heat or Cold or Rain than in another although the places lie in the same Climate but yet they cause not the Winter to be changed into Summer or Summer into Winter A Rocky Marshish and Maritim Land findeth somewhat another degree of heat or cold than Vallies or a Chalk and Maritim Land 3. The places in the Tropicks for the most part in the Summer have an excessive heat others a Pluvial Season so that they almost approach to the nature of the places of the Torrid Zone So in the part of the Kingdom of Guzarat lying without the Tropick at the same time the wet and dry months are observed which in the part lying beyond the Aequator the Summer is changed into a Pluvial Season yet then there is greater heat than the dry part of the year where they have a moderate cold and in truth in the places of the Temperate Zones we judg the Summer and Winter not from the drought and rains but from the heat and cold Now in the Coasts of Persia and Ormus there is so great heat without Rains in the Summer by reason of the vicinity of the Sun rhat both the Men and their Wives ly in Cisterns full of Water The like heat is in Arabia The Regions of Africa on the Mediterranean Sea are called the coast of Barbary Throughout all Barbary the middle of October being past Showers and Cold begin to increase and in December and January the cold is perceived more intense and that only in the morning and withal so remiss that the Fire is not desired February taketh away the greatest part of the cold from the Winter but yet it is so inconstant that sometimes 5 or 6 times in one day the Air changeth In the month of March the North and West Winds blow violently and cause whole trees to be vested with blossoms April giveth form almost to all Fruits so that the entrance of May and the end of April is wont naturally to produce Cherries In the middle of May they gather Figs and in the middle of June in some places are ripe Grapes Of the seasons of the year of Barbary the Figs or Autumn are gathered in August and there is no greater plenty of Figs and Pears than in September There is not so great intemperies of the year in those places but that the three months of the Spring are always temperate The entrance of the Spring that is the Terrestrial not the Celestial is as they reckon on the 15th of February and the end the 18th of May in all which time the Air is most grateful to them If from the 25th of April to the 5 of May they have no Rain they esteem the same as ominous They count their Summer even to the 16th of August at which time they have a very hot and serene Air. Their Autumn from the 17 of August to the 16 of November and they have that for two months to wit August and September yet not great That which is included between the 15 of August and the 15 of September was wont to be termed by the Antients the Furnace of the whole year and that because it produced Figs Pears and that kind of Fruit to maturity From the 15 of November they reckoned their Winter which they extend to the 14 of February At the entrance of this they begin to till their Land which is the plain but the mountainous in the month of October The Africans have a certain perswasion that the year hath 40 very hot days and on the other side so many cold The Opinion of the Arabians days which they say begin from the 12 of December They begin the Aequinoxes on the 16 of March and on the 16 of September Their Solstices on the 16 of June and the 16 of December The end of their Autumn all their Winter and a good part of their Spring is full of violent Winds accompanied with Hail Lightnings and dreadful Thunders neither is there wanting in many places of Barbary an abundance of Snow In Mount Atlas 7 degrees distant from the Tropick of Cancer they divide the year only into two parts for from October even to April they have a continual Winter and from April again to October they have Summer In this there is no day in which the Mountains tops glitter with Snow The seasons of Numidia In Numidia the parts of the year swiftly pass away for in May they reap their Corn in October they gather their Dates but from the middle of September to January a violent Frost continueth October abstaining from Rains all hopes of Sowing is taken from the Husbandman the same hapneth if that April produceth not Pluvial Water Leo Astricanus remembreth many Mountains of Snow in Africa not far from the Tropick of Cancer Of China The North part of China although no more remote from the Aequator than Italy yet it hath a cold more sharp for great Rivers and Lakes are congealed up with Frost the cause of which is not yet sufficiently known except we should refer it to the Snowy Mountains of Tartaria not far remote to the avoyding of which cold they abound with the Skins of Foxes and Scythilian Rats New England New England although it lie in 42 degrees of North Latitude and therefore no more removed from the Aequator than Italy yet in the month of June when Sir Francis Drake was there the Air was so vehement cold that he was compelled to sayl back to the South for the Mountains were then covered with Snow The cause is the Frigid temperature of the Earth being Stony The seasons of Aegypt In Aegypt which is bounded with the Tropick of Cancer the Spring and Temperate Season of the year is observed about January and February The Summer beginneth with March and April and continueth June July and August The Autumn possesseth September and October The Winter hath November and December About the beginning of April they Reap their Corn and presently thresh it After the 20 of May not an Ear of Corn is to be seen in the Fields no Fruits on the trees On the Ides of June the inundation of the Nilus beginneth The seasons in the streights of Magellan In the Streights of Magellan and the adjacent Regions although they be no more distant from the Aequator than our parts
are under the 52 degree of South Latitude yet they have no very hot Summer So that the Hollanders in the month of January when there should be an hot Summer found a great glade of Ice in the Creek of one of their Seas In the Mountains of the adjacent Coasts Snow is discovered all the Summer long and it is observed that in almost all the Regions of the South Temperate Zone they have a Cold far more intense in Winter and a violency of Rain and a less heat in Summer than the parts of our Northern Temperate Zone Whether this be the cause that the Sun makes a longer stay and the slower progress in the Semicircle of the Northern Zodiac than in the Southern is to be questioned In the Neighbouring Province of Peru which they call La Valla Imperial in the Province of Potosi they find so great a Cold that for four miles circumference there groweth nothing The season of Chili In the Kingdom of Chili which extendeth it self from 30 degrees of South Latitude to 50 degrees the Spring beginneth in the months of August sooner than the Celestial Account admitteth and endeth in the middle of November And from the middle of November Summer beginneth even to the middle of February from whence Autumn leadeth on to the middle of May which the Winter succedeth which is very violent and dispoileth the Trees of their Blossoms and scattereth a deep Snow with a vehement Frost which yet is discovered by the Sun except which is very seldom that the Sun appeareth not but the Snow rarely falleth in the Vallies for although it falls in great abundance and is heaped up so high that it ascends the tops of Mountains and is heaped together in the vacuity of the Mountains as in so many wells and indure almost the whole year yet being there dissolved they flow into the Rivers and Torrents which run through the Vallies with a great force even to the Sea to the great enrichment of the Grounds But although here it Snow not except rarely in the Plains yet it maketh so excessive a Frost that the like is scarcely felt in many parts of Europe which happeneth partly from the Altitude of the Pole partly from the propinquity of the Mountains from which descend so subtile and penetrating Winds that sometimes they are unsufferable whence it cometh to pass that the Maritim parts are more temperate He that is Studious may collect other differences of Region under the same Climate or in the vicine Climates from Writers for example that in England the Air is not so cold as in Holland so that they pen not up their Heards in the Winter Betwen Siberia and Tartaria in a place seated not far from the Frigid Zone in the end of our Temperate are said to be plesant Fields and rich Pastures almost no cold seeing that they scarce feel Winter where by the command of the Duke of Moscovia the City Tooru is built which is at this day so much encreased that it is able to repell the Assaults of the Tartars The Island of Japan In Japan the Winter is Cold Snowy Ruiny when yet other Regions of Europe and Asia lying under the same Climate have far lesser Winter the cause is because that Japan consists of many Islands disjoyned by a small Euripus and that it also lyeth in the middle of the Ocean America very hot in the Summer In Armenia and the adjoyning places there is great heat in Summer because it lieth amongst Mountains here and there mixed with Fields hence the more rich in some places in Summer remove to the tops of the Mountains and remain there for some months but the meaner sort in the day time defend themselves in the Mountains from the near and about eventide do descend to the lower ground Proposition XIII To declare how in places in the Frigid Zone the four Seasons of the year have themselves with the light Of the places in the Frigid Zone The cause of those Seasons with the light proposed in the entrance of this Chapter thus stands in the Frigid Zone 1. The Center of the Sun for some days or months as the place is either nearer or remote from the Pole doth not arise above the Horizon and for so many days setteth not 2. In those days when he is above the Horizon he only illustrateth those places with his oblique raies because he is not much elevated above the Horizon but moveth round it because those places are over much removed from the way of the Sun 3. The Sun is not deeply depressed beneath the Horizon yea in places near the Polary Circle or Artick Pole although the Center of the Sun doth not arise yet part of his Skirt ariseth and is beheld for some days above the Horizon before the Center it self ariseth by reason that the half Sun possesseth 15 minutes in the Heaven For example let us take those places whose distance is from the Aequator 67 degrees towards the Pole Artick let the Pole be elevated according to this Latitude and in the Meridian Crena of the Horizon you shall see that the degrees of the Ecliptick do not arise from the 19th degree of Sagittarius to the 11 of Capricorn that is the Center of the Sun being in that Arch doth not arise for 24 days viz. from the 10th of December to the 4th of January and yet part of the Skirt of the Sun for that whole time shall be above the Horizon to wit on the 21 of December the Limbus glittereth the Horizon but on the 10 of December as also on the first of January half the Sun shall be above the Horizon and half beneath because the Center is then in the Horizon But the whole Sun shall be elevated above the Horizon when the Center of the Sun shall hold the 14 degree of Capricorn that is about the 4 day of January also the whole shall afterwards appear when his Center shall possess the 16 degree of Sagittarius that is about the 7 of December But in places where the elevation of the Pole is 70 or 75 degrees there this difference between the Oriental Limbus and the Oriental Center is very little so that the Limbus or Skirt scarcely anticipateth the rise of the Center of the Sun one day or half a day From this smallest of depression it followeth also that they enjoy the light of the Crepusculum many hours before the rising and after the setting of the Sun and although the Sun ariseth not yet in all or many of the hours of the day they have light in the Air. There is also another cause See Chap. 19. which maketh the Sun first to be seen before that he is elevated above the Horizon For thence it cometh to pass that not only the Sun is seen before he is elevated above the Horizon and before the Raies can directly come from him to the Eye but also that the light of the Twilight sooner illustrateth
the Shore and in the Harbours as also greater Ships come to Zeland than to Holland Proposition V. If a Ship be so burdened that its weight or gravity be almost equal to the weight or gravity of the Sea water equal to the capacity of the Ship yet it sinketh not in the Sea but when it shall be brought into any Rivers it sinketh to the bottom The reason is because the Water of Rivers is lighter than the Water of the Sea Therefore if the weight of the laden Ship be almost equal to the gravity of the Marine Water therefore it shall be greater than the gravity of River Water and so the Ship shall be sunk in the River or carried to the bottom Many Ships for this reason have perished which have been over laden by unskilful Mariners or not unburdened in the Mouths of the Rivers Now how much this gravity should be is known from the proportion of the Sea Water to River Water Proposition VI. Any body swiming on the water hath that weight that the watery Moles hath equal to the demergent part of this body Corollary The part of the Ship being given which is under Water the weight of the whole burdened Ship may be found For the gravity of the Water is known or is easy to be found For Example one Cubick foot of Water is 70 li. and therefore if the part of the Ship under Water be 2000 Cubick foot therefore the gravity of the Watery Moles which is equal to the part of the Ship under Water shall be 140000 li. So much also shall be the weight of the Ship laded Proposition VII A Ship is most commonly accounted commodiously to carry that quantity of burden whose gravity is equal to the gravity of half the Moles of water which the Ship can contain For Example if the Ship can carry 500000 Tun of Water whereof every one is accounted at 2000 li. weight that is if it contain the Water of 1000000000 li. You may conveniently lade it with the burden of 250000 Tuns 1000000000. In this sense you must understand it when they say that Ships are so many Tuns or carry so many Lasts The Spanish Carracts carry 1200 Lasts the greatest Holland Indian Ship 800 Lasts Proposition VIII By how much the Weight of the Ship laded is greater by so much the less it is tossed with storms and tempests A laded Ship is not so subject to be tossed in Tempests as when not laden Ships of 2000 Tuns are not in danger of those Tempests which are vexatious to Ships of 300 or 500 Tuns Much more might be said but this may suffice for Elements CHAP. XXXVII Of the third and chief Part of the Nautick Aâ—t viz. the Art of Guiding or Navigating of a Ship and its subdivision of the Four Parts Proposition I. That is termed the Art of Guiding or Navigating of a Ship which teacheth unto what quarters a Ship is to be Guided in any scituation of it in the Sea that it may come to the purposed place without danger I Make Four Parts of it Of the Guiding or Steering of Ships 1. Special Geography that is the knowledge of a space intercepted between two places and the properties of the same 2. The knowledge of the quarters in every place 3. The cognition of the Line by which the Ship is to be brought from one place to the other for there are between every two places infinite intercepted Lines this part is termed Histriodromice 4. The knowledge of the scituation of every place unto which by Sailing we arrive or how these places are scituated unto that place unto which the Ship is to be directed This is the chief part of the Art of Sailing Proposition II. The cognition of the intermedial space comprehendeth these things Things observed from Special Geography and Nautical Maps 1. The scituations of the places the procurrences of Angles the bending of the Shores the aspect of Promontories Mountains Bays the depths of Waters the sight of Islands and Coasts of Lands All which are known from Special Geography and Nautical Maps but most easily and with greatest certainty from observation and frequent Navigation through any tract of Land which is the only Cause that some Mariners are more fit to guide a Ship to such place and others to another 2. The knowledge of the General and Special Winds and those that are peculiar unto any place which is exceeding necessary in Navigations which are undertaken in the Torrid Zone and adjacent places For here a general Wind and in many places Anniversary Winds which we have shewed to be called Moussons Motions in our XX. Chapter do rule which either promote or hinder Navigation For the Indian Sea is Sailed by these Anniversary Winds Of these and also of storms and tempests we have spoken in the XX. Chapter See Chap. 20. 3. The Condition of the Motion of the Seas in every tract also the quarter of it into which quarter the Sea and Waves are born for they carry the Ship with them The diversity of those Motions in many places we have shewed in the XVII Chap. See Chap. 17. First of all there is required a knowledge of the Ship and reflux of the Sea and the time or hour of the increase and decrease at every day the supputation of which is termed the reckoning of the Tides for except a Master know this the Ship is often much hazarded when it is near Shores or Sands whereof most in the greatest increase of the Water do not hinder the passage of the Ship but most do in the decrease So with a flux the Navigation is more facile to the Shore and to the inlets of Rivers and the contrary is discovered in the reflux Of the supputation of this time we have spoken a little in the Proposition of the XVII Chapter CHAP. XXXVIII Of the knowledge of places viz. the North South East and West and the intermedial quarters Proposition I. In every place to know the Plagas viz. the North South East and West and the intermedial quarters The quarters very neccessary in Navigation THe knowledge of this is the most necessary of all the Problems of the whole Art of Navigation seeing that a Ship must be guided unto some quarter which if unknown there can be no direction and the very defect of this knowledge alone hindred the Navigation of the Ancients and in this is the chief difference between the Ancient and Modern Navigation For the Ancients had not a Method by which at any time in the large Ocean they might know where was the North where the South and the other quarters Therefore they could not nor durst they commit themselves to the vast Ocean but only coasted the Shores so that they might know the quarters from other signs The Ancients had a double Method of finding out the quarters The Ancients had a double Method which serveth also to the Modern Navigation of finding out the quarters
mark with a Chalk Then let the shank applied to the quarter be moved until the other noted point of the shank applied to the quarter fall in on the Parallel of the observed Latitude For the point of the falling in is the place sought viz. the place of the Ship But if that there be no Parallel of Latitude observed on the Map let the degrees intercepted between this Latitude and the vicine Parallel be taken by the interval of the Compass on the lateral line And let the Rule in the line of the quarter and one Foot of the Compass be moved together in this Parallel until the other Foot of the Compass and the noted shank do meet the point of the meeting sheweth the place of the Ship Seamen use two pair of Compasses If that you will determine more accurately by the Calculation of the place demanded on the Map or Earth it self the Problem is this The Latitude and Longitude of one place being given and the quarter in which the Navigation is appointed to another place and the Latitude of this place given to find his Longitude for the Latitude and Longitude given is the place it self 3. The quantity of the Voyage performed from one known place to another unknown being observed and the Latitude of this other being observed to find this other on the Maps Let the quantity of the Voyage performed be taken by the interval of the Compass from the opposite Scale Then if a Parallel through the degree of Latitude be observed on the Map let one Foot of the Compass be placed on the noted place the other Foot on this Parallel This point shall be the place demanded But if the Parallel pass not through the degree of Latitude let one shank of the Rule be applied to the vicine Parallel on the other shank let the degree of Latitude be noted and let the Rule be moved until the other Foot of the Compass toucheth the noted point of the Rule The place of the Map subject to the point in this scituation shall be the sought for place of the Ship If that a more accurate invention is required by Calculation the Problem shall be this The Latitude and Longitude of one place being given and the distance of the other on the line of Navigation and the Latitude of this to find out the Latitude of this other For this being known when the Latitude is observed you have the scituation of the place it self on the Maps or Earth The 4th or 5th Method also of finding out of this place is also given viz. in which the Longitude of the other or sought for place is supposed to be observed but the Latitude is unknown But because that very seldom the Longitude can be observed on the Sea therefore this Method is omitted as unuseful See Snellius Stevens and Metius He that desireth more concerning this Method let him Read Snellius Stevens Metius and others that have treated at large of it Proposition III. To conjecture unto what quarter the Ship is moved and in what Rhombe although the signs be fallacious In the solution of the former Proposition for the finding out the place of a Ship those things as noted were taken and observed 1. The quarter unto which the Ship is moved and the Rhombe in which 2. The way made 3. The Latitude of the place unto which it hath arrived Now therefore we must shew how these three may be observed on the Sea that they may be used for the finding out of the place For if that these be not rightly known or observed the true place shall neither be found or discovered First therefore let us see concerning the quarter of the course of the Ship and the Rhombe The Pilots know the quarter from the Compass or Loadstone The Pilots know the quarter from the Compass or Loadstone For what quarter or Rhombe of the Compass agreeth with the Line of the conceived Longitude of the Ship the same is put into the quarter of the Ship to be moved and to describe its Rhombe For they seldom use the sign taken from the quarter of the apparent rising and setting of the Sun which they compute These signs may be corrupted by divers Causes so that they may deceive in shewing the Rhombe or quarter 1. If that the Declination of the Magnetick Needle be uncertain in that place and therefore the quarters of the Compass do not shew the true quarters 2. If that the Sea in that place hath a flux to a certain place for it will carry the Ship from the true Rhombe although the Ship be directed unto the same quarter the fluxes and refluxes are the frequent cause of this error And in many places of the Torrid Zone a general Motion is of force and in many places a stated and fixed Motion from stated winds 3. Winds especially storms remove the Ship from the Rhombe of their Voyage although they ply in the same quarter 4. The fluxes of the Sea which are carried towards other quarters and carry the Ship with it 5. The Rudder or Helme cannot be moved by him that steereth unto any quarter as it ought to be the waves of the Sea obstructing of it All these hinder the Ship to be moved in the same Rhombe whose quarters are shewed by the Compass But how much it is drawn aside must be learned by conjecture from the vehemency of the Flood and of its quarter and the like but the Method is very imperfect Proposition IV. To cast up the Voyage made upon the Rhombe to measure it at the given time from the given place The casting up the Voyage made upon the Rhombe c. Pilots conjecture the same 1. When they observe or know by experience what course a Ship is wont to make with such a Wind. 2. If that they have Sailed in the same Meridian or vicine Line with any Wind and have observed the Latitude of the place in the beginning of the Motion and the Latitude of the place in the following time For the difference of Latitude turned into miles sheweth the course made for so long a space of time and such a Wind. Whence for the time given and such a Wind continuing the course made is collected 3. With more industry they measure the course performed by a Boat and string one end of which is fastened to the Boat and the other with the Globe is in the Ship for the Ship remaining immovable Sailing is permitted to the Boat untill it be removed 10 or 12 Orgyas of the string and the time elapsed between is observed And from this for any time of the performed course of the Ship is found out The signs of the performed Sailing of the Ship are corrupted and rendred uncertain by divers ways yea are uncertain of themselves seeing they are mere conjectures 1. Oftentimes the Ship maketh lesser or greater way than the conjecture affordeth viz. because in many places of the Sea the flux is