their truths Sometimes the efficient and finall causes are linked together with a long chaine As Vnder the Aequator the aire is very hot because it is very subtill The aire is very subtill because the Sunne doth rarefie it very much The Sunne rarefies the aire because the beames fall in right angles The beames fall in right angles because the Sunne is there in the Zenith Thus it is in the finall cause The Lungs draw in the aire to refresh the heat of the heart The heat of the heart is refreshed to keepe the Temperature The Temperature is kept to preserue life So many causes so many demonstrations But the last where also the chiefest and last cause stands for the Meane is the noblest of all because it can no further be demonstrated and the two propositions are immediate every manner of way The fifth Chapter A speciall note to know a perfect Demonstration OF all the markes of a perfect Demonstration this is the most evident when it may be converâ—ed or reduced to a definition For we haue said heretofore that the definition of a proper accident is compounded of three parts namely L. 2. c. 8. of the Genus of that which is defined and of the proper subject and of the cause thereof As the definition of Death is the destruction of the life of the creature by the extinguishing of vitall heat Out of this definition a demonstration may be framed making the Subject of this accident to be the subject of the conclusion the Genus to be the attribute and the cause the Meane As thus Whensoever the vitall heat is extinguished life is destroyed But in a living creature the vitall heat is extinguished Therefore in a living creature life is destroyed The same may be said of these definitions following Sleepe is the heavinesse of a living creature by the cessation of the common sense Thunder is a noyse in the clouds by the breaking out of the fire The sixth Chapter Of an Imperfect Demonstration WEE haue shewed that a perfect demonstration is that which proveth by the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute that the attribute of the conclusion agrees with the subject If any of these perfections be wanting the demonstration is the weaker and lesse perfect If the Meane be not the next cause of the attribute but onely a remote cause then is the demonstration weaker and more imperfect And such demonstrations for the most part conclude negatiuely For example Where there is no opposition of contrary qualities there is no death But in the heavens there is no opposition of contrary qualities Therefore in heaven there is no death Or He that is of a cold temperature will never be bald But Eunuches are of a cold temperature Therefore Eunuches will never be bald In these demonstrations the propositions are not immediate For the Meane is not the next cause of the attribute To haue no contrary qualities is not the next cause of not dying but a remote cause for the next cause of not dying in mans body is the continual preservation of the humors in an equall temperature and the cause hereof is to haue no contrarietie or combate betweene the elementarie qualities in the bodie Thus the cause why Eunuches become not bald is become the radicall humor of the haires is not spent and the remote cause is because they haue but little heat In these demonstrations the propositions are not immediate for the Meane is not the next cause of the attribute And though the propositions be immediate yet if the Meane be not the cause but the effect of the attribute then it shall be a lesse perfect demonstration proving not the effect by the cause but the cause by the effect This kinde of demonstration shewes not why the conclusion is but onely that it is As All that loue God are beloved of God But all that haue faith in Christ loue God Therefore all that haue faith in Christ are beloved of God The Meane is to loue God which is not the cause but the effect of the loue which God beareth vnto vs which loue is the attribute of the conclusion in this demonstration wherein the cause is proved by the effect whereas in a perfect demonstration we proue effects by their causes Therefore this imperfect demonstration proveth onely that the thing is but sheweth not why it is The effect may very well be the cause of knowing but not of being As the smoake which we see come out of a chimney may be a cause to make vs know that there is fire in the house but it is not the cause of the fire but onely the effect And the vnequall beating of the pulse is not the cause of the Ague but it is a cause which makes vs know that such a one hath an Ague ¶ The sixt Booke OF SOPHISMES OR FALLACIES The first Chapter Of Fallacies in words ALL Fallacies or Sophismes committed in disputing are either in the Words or in the Matter Fallacies in words are of six kindes 1. Aequivocation 2. Amphibologie 3. Deceipt by Composition 4. Deceipt by Division 5. Deceipt in the Accent or Pronuntiation 6. And deceipt in the Figure of the word 1. Of Aequivocation Decipt by Aequivocation is when the Meane is a doubtfull word taken in the proposition one way and in the assumption another way As That which hath neither beginning nor ending God created not The roundnesse of the Heavens hath neither beginning nor ending Therfore the roundnesse of the Heavens God created not In the proposition beginning and ending is taken for continuance of time but in the assumption it is taken for the beginning and ending of a figure Or thus He that saith that thou liuest saith true He that saith that thou art a goose saith that thou livest Therefore he that saith that thou art a goose saith true In the proposition it is meant of an expresse saying but in the assumption of a saying by consequence Thus a man of great capacitie may be taken for a learned man and sometimes for one whose stomacke is able to containe much wine The same fallacie may be committed also when a word is otherwise taken in the propositions then in the conclusion 2. Of Amphibologie Amphibologie is an ambiguous constructioÌ„ making the sense doubtfull As Faith alone iustifieth It cannot be knowne whether the meaning be that faith being alone justifieth or els that faith justifieth onely In the first sense it is false for faith alone without good works is no true faith and by consequent justifieth not But in the second sense it is true that faith onely justifieth because it onely hath the propertie to justifie So it is true in one sense that the eye alone seeth but it is false in another sense that the eye seeth alone For an eye that is out of the head seeth not 3. The fallacie in Composition The fallacie in Composition is when things are taken as conjoyned which cannot be true but in
salt is said of the whole Sea and of every part of it but to encompasse the earth is attributed onely to the Sea as it is a Whole and therefore it is not attributed to any part of the Sea The Table of the Whole and Parts The Whole is composed of parts Formall Materiall which are among themselues alike vnlike integrall not integrall necessary for being well-being not necessary The eight Chapter Of Definition DEfinition is a speech which expresseth the essence of the thing The perfect definition of a Substance is that which is compounded of the next Genus and the specificall difference As the definition of a Plant is to be a bodie liuing a vegetatiue life of man to be a reasonable creature There are but few such Definitions because the formes and essentiall differences of substances are not so well knowne vnto vs. God onely who made them doth exactly know them The perfect definition of an Accident is compounded of three parts namely of the next Genus of the proper Subject and of the next Efficient or Finall cause As for example death is an accident whereof the Genus is the end or destruction of life the Subject is a liuing bodie and the next Efficient cause is the extinguishing of vitall heat This therefore is the perfect definition of death namely that it is the destruction of the life of a liuing bodie by extinguishing the vitall heat Thus are defined anger griefe sicknes thunder earthquake the Eclipse of the Moone and that of the Sunne Civil-warre respiration and divers other things whereof wee shall produce some examples in the end of this Chapter Now but Proper Accidents can be thus defined For mutable and casuall Accidents or such as haue no certaine knowne cause or that depend vpon the will of man cannot be exactly defined And therefore in stead of a Definition we describe them as well as we may expressing their Genus and some certaine propertie So whitenes is defined when we say that it is a most simple and most cleare colour And light is defined to be the chiefe of all whitenesses or the whitenes of the bodie of the Sunne sending forth his likenes through transparent bodies Naturall instruments as the eye and the hand or artificiall as a hammer or ana xe are defined by their Genus and by their fitnes for that vse for which they are ordained So the Eye is the instrument of seeing and a Hammer is an instrument to knocke withall Definition serveth to discourse and to argue by the meanes of this Maxime Maxime To whatsoever thing the definition agreeth vnto that same also the thing defined doth agree And reciprocally to whatsoever the defined thing agreeth to the same the definition agreeth also The Table of Definition Definition is either of a Substance which is composed of the Next Genus Difference Accident which is Proper defined by the Next Genus Proper subject Next cause Efficient Finall Improper or casuall defined as the Substance so far as may be Certaine examples of the definition of a Proper Accident THunder is a sound in the cloud by the breaking out of a flaming exhalation Death is the destruction of a living creature by extinguishing the vitall heat The Eclipse of the Moone is the darkning of the Moone by the interposition of the earth Anger is a perturbation of the mind arising from the opinion of a sustained wrong Civill warre is the trouble of an Estate arising from the discord of the parties Baldnes is the losse of the haire of the head through the want of radicall humour Respiration is the drawing in of aire into the lungs to refresh the heart Sicknes is an Indisposition of the bodie caused by the distemperature of the Humours The Earthquake is the stirring or moving of a part of the earth through the violence of winds therein enclosed Blindnes is a privation of light in the eye by the corruption of the instruments of seeing Sorrow is a griefe in the irascible facultie through the griefe of some evill The Eclipse of the Sunne is the darkning of the aire by the interposition of the Moone The ninth Chapter Of Division THere are divers sorts of Divisions For either we divide the Genus into the Species or the Whole into the Parts or the Substance into divers Accâ—dents or an Accident into divers Subjects or a Word into divers significations 1. First we divide a Genus into the Species As a liuing creature into man and beast Actions into naturall and voluntarie 2. Or els we divide the Whole into Parâ—s So man is divided into Soule and bodie A house into the foundations walls and roofe Which division is made either in thought or in deed 3. Or els we divide the Subject into divers Accidents As when we divide men into free and bond into males or females into fooles or wisemen 4. Or els we divide an Accident into other Accidents As when we divide Physicians into rich and poore ones souldiers into great or little ones strong or weake 5. Or els we divide Accidents into divers Subjects As sicknes into the sicknes of the bodie and sicknes of the soule So we may divide corruption into the corruption of simple bodies or into the corruption of mixt or compounded bodies 6. Or we divide an Aequivocall word into divers significatioÌ„s As the word linke which signifieth a Sausage a Torch and a linke of a chaine Rules for Division 1. A good division must haue but few parts and those opposit if it may be As animal is divided into reasonable and vnreasonable Number into even and odd A line into straight and crocked But that is not alwayes possible As when we divide the externall senses into fiue And France into seventeene governements 2. In a Division nothing must be either superfluous or wanting As if a man should say that the senses are hearing seeing smelling and the two eyes there were in such a Division something wanting and something superfluous 3. The parts of a Division must not over-reach one another As who should say that all cloathing of the bodie is either garments or habillements or gownes Or that Iustice consisteth in three things to liue honestly to hurt no bodie to giue every man his owne In these divisions the parts are but little or not at all differing and are in a manner the same thing The Table of Division Division is of the Genus into the Species Whole into the Parts Subject into Accidents Accidents into divers Subjects Aequivocall word into divers significations The tenth Chapter Of things Coupled called in Latin Conjugata COupling is considered either in Words or in Things Words coupled or conjoyned are such as come from the same beginning and differ in termination As iust iustice iustly white whiting to white whitenes The linke and affinitie of which words is grounded vpon some affinitie which is in the nature of the things signified by these words But there are certaine things coupled in
if it hurteth not thirdly if it be profitable Death hath in it these three things For it is vnevitable therefore as it is a folly to hope for things impossible so it is a folly to feare things vnevitable Againe death 〈◊〉 not hurtful because our Saviour Christ hath taken away the curse thereof Lastly it is profitable and that is knowne by the effects which follow The Effects Death is profitable before death for it abateth pride Thou seest now a triumphing Monarch and ere long toads will breed in his skull and wormes in his entrails The thought of death keepes a man in feare and sobriety as also from sinning Without it man would hardly be tamed It makes vs despise the world and to acknowlâ—dge the vanitie of all our toyle It makes vs more earnest in prayer and increaseth our faith through resistance After death it makes vs fully know that which we here see but a farre of and very obscurely It ioineth vs with the Saints and placeth vs with Christ Iesus To feare death is to offer wrong vnto Christ as if it were ill being with him It maketh vs to see the face of God which changeth them that see it into his owne likenesse It bringeth vs into the possession of peace without end of contentment without interruption and felicitie without measure The Similitudes If new borne babes had the vse of reason they would never crie but rather much reioyce that they part from such an vncleane and obscure place to enter into the light of this world So if we had the right vse of reason wee would not be sad when death comes because our soules goe out of an vncleane straight and obscure place or rather prison to enter into the light of heaven Death is like Samsons Lyon whereof it is written that from bitternesse came sweetnesse Or like vnto the harsh sound of a boult at the opening of a doore which notwithstanding is very pleasing if it be to come out of a prison Or as when Christ came to his Disciples walking on the waters they said it was a spirit but when they saw him neerer hand they said of him and so must we of death it is the Lord that commeth vnto vs. The Opposits Present life is opposed vnto death now if there be no cause to desire life no more is there to feare death Vpon this occasion you may run through every age of mans life as also through the dâ—vers conditions that are from the Prince to the beggar and shew that all is but miserie Besides those evils and accidents which are common to all The Comparison in regard of Goodnesse Mutable and transitorie things are not so good as those that are eternall and permanent Againe the good which sufficeth alone is better then that good which when we haue wee haue yet need of another He that hath happily ended his life needeth neither money nor apparell nor honour nor health c. but he that hath nothing but the present life hath need of all these things and besides them eternall good things The Comparison in regard of Probabilitie Probable alike If Martyrs feared not to dye in the flâ—mes of fire why should we feare to dye in sicknesse seeing we haue the same hope Lesse probable If the Heathen went to their deaths with as ioyfull a countenance as others that returned safe from thence why should wee feare it that haue a better hope Why should ambition haue more force in them then faith in vs If a souldier doth adventure himselfe vpon the mouth of the Cannon-shot and offereth himselfe the first vpon a breach for the pay of six-pence a day what should wee doe for an everlasting kingdome Testimonies Here must be alledged the passages of the word of God the sentences of Philosophers the examples of such as haue dyed constantly As of Regulus of the two Decius of the Gymnosophists of the Indian Women of the Tribals of the Martyrs c. Finally by these sixteene places as by certaine directions we are furnished with abundance of matter for argument and discourse And by these helpes we are put in remembrance of all that we haue read heard or seene which may serue to amplifie the matter propounded But the Maximes which are added to every place are of vse to teach vs how the argument may bee well grounded for they are as lights vnto our reason And note also that these places furnish vs with matter to argue as well for Death which is the Subject of this questioÌ„ as for Not to be feared which is the Attribute thereof as wee shall see hereafter But the Arguments which are drawne from the attribute are the strongest and most forcible ANOTHER EXAMPLE The praise of Sobrietie The Species of Sobrietie WE speake not heere of that Sobrietie which the Physicians appoint by dyet nor of that which is through necessitie when we haue nothing to eat nor of that cold gravitie of the Germans aâ— the beginning of their meales nor of that of covetous persons who grudge themselues things necessarie nor of that which is performed by a scrupulous abstinence But of that which is a morall vertue The Definition Sobrietie is a temperance which prescribeth a moderation in eating and drinking The Whole and the Parts Neither doe we speake of that Sobrietie which consisteth in certaine meates and not in other in eating and not in drinking in his owne hâ—use and not in companie For sobrietie giues lawes for all times and all places and for all sorts of meates and drinkes The Etymologie 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 The Grecians haue rightly derived sobrietie from a word which signifieth to keepe the vnderstanding sound because it preserveth the health and the libertie of the vnderstanding The Genus I say it is a species of Temporance Now Temperance is the nurse of all other vertues the guardian of bodily hâ—alâ—h and of the light of the minde making it not to be subiâ—ct to the belly it keepâ—th in brutall concupiscence and teachâ—th how to eat to liue and not to liue to eat The causes The cause why a thing is to be commended or desired is if it be honest delightfull and profitable Now sobrietie hath all these three for it is a good and comely thing to haue an vpright body in old age to haue a fresh and liuely countenance not to be seene drunke nor croaking in an Alehouse among debauched persons c. It is a delightfull thing to be cheerfull and affable and to haue peace at home for drunkennes breedeth quarrels Pleasures seldome vsed are sweetest It is a profitable thing to haue a strong body a free minde fit to goe about civill affaires to haue a good memorie not to wast goods to provide for the necessitie of the familie to husband the time well not to reveale secrets sobrietie is of vse for all these The Effects The causes for the which sobrietie is commendable are also effects of sobrietie and therefore we
Therefore it neigheth not But such conclusions follow by chance and not by the force of the Syllogisme In these Syllogismes the assumption is part of the proposition which proposition maketh an entire Syllogisme And it is probable that this word Assumption is borrowed from these Syllogismes because that in them the second proposition is taken and assumed out of the first The foureteenth Chapter Of Disiunctiue Syllogismes DIsjunctiue Syllogismes are such whose proposition is compounded of two disjunctiue parts or peeces or which are separated by this particle OR As It is day or night This number is even or odd As thus This man is dead or aliue But he is dead Therefore he is not aliue Or els thus But he is aliue Therefore he is not dead Or thus But he is not aliue Therefore he is dead For those propositiōs are compounded of such parts the one whereof cannot be granted without overthrowing the other Nor can you overthrow the one without establishing or graunting the other And for this cause these two parts must be immediately opposit so as there may be no third For example this argument is not good There is peace or warre But there is no warre Therefore there is peace For there may be a truce In these Syllogismes to the end that the truth may be evident and without exception the two parts of the proposition must not be contradictorie but must be either contraries or privatiues or relatiues For example if I argue thus This line is straight or crooked But it is straight Therefore it is not crooked This argument is cleere and certaine But if I argue thus Philip is wise or vnwise But he is vnwise From thence wee can draw no conclusion that may haue any likelihood of reason ¶ The fift Booke OF THE MASTER-PEECE OF LOGICK called DEMONSRATION The first Chapter What Science is THIS word Science is somtimes taken for the whole bodie of one kind of learning Thus Ethicks Physicks Metaphysicks civill Law are called Sciences Sometimes the word Science signifieth onely the knowledge of a conclusion prooved by Demonstration And this is it whereof we purpose to treat of in this place which is thus defined Science is a certaine knowledge of a thing certaine whose proofe is drawne from the cause To haue the Science of a thing two certainties are required The one is that the thing be certaine of it selfe and vnchangeable The second is that the perswasion which wee haue of it be firme and cleare If either of these two certainties be wanting it is no Science but opinion For a man may haue a doubtfull opinion of a thing certaine As he that doubteth whether there be a God And on the contrary a man may haue a firme and stedfast perswasion of that which is vncertaine and false As those that suffer death for the defence of a false Religion And therefore it is not amisse to know the difference between Science Faith and Opinion Science is a certaine knowledge of a certaine thing by the next cause Opinion is a doubtfull or false knowledge Faith is a firme perswasion grounded vpon the Testimonie of some other If a man know certainly a thing because he seeth it or toucheth it that is neither called Science nor Faith nor opinion but sense which knoweth onely things singular but Science is of things vniversall The second Chapter What a Demonstration or Demonstratiue Syllogisme is A Demonstratiue Syllogisme is that which giveth or bringeth certaine knowledge of the conclusion If we will define it more exactly we must define it thus A demonstratiue Syllogisme is that which prooveth that the attribute of the conclusion is truely attributed vnto the subject by a Meane that must be the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute of the said conclusion These two sorts of causes were called externall in the Chapter of Causes aboue mentioned because they are no parts of the effect nor of the thing compounded though sometimes the efficient cause be in the very same subject As the soule of man is the cause of the sense in man and the thicknesse of gold is the cause of the weight of it In these examples the efficient cause and the effect are in the same subject The third Chapter What questions are demonstrable SVch questions wherein the attribute is a substance cannot bee prooved by demonstration because substances haue no certaine efficient cause proper vnto them For the will of God is an vniversall cause common to all things and by consequent it can be no Meane in a demonstratiue Syllogisme Againe such questions or conclusions wherein the attribute is a mutable or casuall accident cannot be proved by demonstration because these accidents haue no certaine and assured cause As Philip is rich Bucephalus halteth But those questions are demonstrable whose attribute is a proper and immutable accident whereof the next efficient or finall cause may be given For example these questions may be prooved by demonstration A transparent bodie is without colour Eunuches are never bald Fixt Starres doe twinckle The Moone suffers obscuritie Of all estates Oligarchie is the most subiect to civill warre Lines paralell never meet All bodies compounded of Elements are corruptible Vnder the scorching Zone it is very hot For the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute of these questiōs may be given The fourth Chapter What the propositions of a demonstratiue Syllogisme ought to be THe Demonstration must consist of necessary propositions among which those are the most necessarie which are called Immediate There be two sorts of immediate propositions that is to say such as are without any middle For some are immediate in regard of the subject and others are immediate in regard of the cause Immediate propositions in regard of the subject are when the attribute agreeth next of all and immediately to the subject so as a neerer subject cannot be given In such propositions the attribute agreeth with the subject because it is such a subject For example if I say that a horse hath sense this attribute agrees not next and immediately to a horse for there is a neerer subject namely an Animal vnto the which sense belongeth But if I say that a horse neigheth this agreeth next and immediately to a horse as he is a horse and not by reason of any other neerer subject Immediate propositions in regard of the cause are when an attribute is so neerely joyned to the subject as that the cause or reason cannot bee yeelded why it should be so For example here is a Demonstration Whatsoever hath a sensitiue soule hath touching Every animal hath a sensitiue soule Therefore every animal hath touching In this Syllogisme the conclusion is immediate in regard of the subject but not in regard of the cause For in this Syllogisme the Meane is the cause of the conclusion But the two propositions are immediate both in regard of the cause as also of the subject for nothing can be alledged as a cause of