Therefore it neigheth not But such conclusions follow by chance and not by the force of the Syllogisme In these Syllogismes the assumption is part of the proposition which proposition maketh an entire Syllogisme And it is probable that this word Assumption is borrowed from these Syllogismes because that in them the second proposition is taken and assumed out of the first The foureteenth Chapter Of Disiunctiue Syllogismes DIsjunctiue Syllogismes are such whose proposition is compounded of two disjunctiue parts or peeces or which are separated by this particle OR As It is day or night This number is even or odd As thus This man is dead or aliue But he is dead Therefore he is not aliue Or els thus But he is aliue Therefore he is not dead Or thus But he is not aliue Therefore he is dead For those propositiōs are compounded of such parts the one whereof cannot be granted without overthrowing the other Nor can you overthrow the one without establishing or graunting the other And for this cause these two parts must be immediately opposit so as there may be no third For example this argument is not good There is peace or warre But there is no warre Therefore there is peace For there may be a truce In these Syllogismes to the end that the truth may be evident and without exception the two parts of the proposition must not be contradictorie but must be either contraries or privatiues or relatiues For example if I argue thus This line is straight or crooked But it is straight Therefore it is not crooked This argument is cleere and certaine But if I argue thus Philip is wise or vnwise But he is vnwise From thence wee can draw no conclusion that may haue any likelihood of reason ¶ The fift Booke OF THE MASTER-PEECE OF LOGICK called DEMONSRATION The first Chapter What Science is THIS word Science is somtimes taken for the whole bodie of one kind of learning Thus Ethicks Physicks Metaphysicks civill Law are called Sciences Sometimes the word Science signifieth onely the knowledge of a conclusion prooved by Demonstration And this is it whereof we purpose to treat of in this place which is thus defined Science is a certaine knowledge of a thing certaine whose proofe is drawne from the cause To haue the Science of a thing two certainties are required The one is that the thing be certaine of it selfe and vnchangeable The second is that the perswasion which wee haue of it be firme and cleare If either of these two certainties be wanting it is no Science but opinion For a man may haue a doubtfull opinion of a thing certaine As he that doubteth whether there be a God And on the contrary a man may haue a firme and stedfast perswasion of that which is vncertaine and false As those that suffer death for the defence of a false Religion And therefore it is not amisse to know the difference between Science Faith and Opinion Science is a certaine knowledge of a certaine thing by the next cause Opinion is a doubtfull or false knowledge Faith is a firme perswasion grounded vpon the Testimonie of some other If a man know certainly a thing because he seeth it or toucheth it that is neither called Science nor Faith nor opinion but sense which knoweth onely things singular but Science is of things vniversall The second Chapter What a Demonstration or Demonstratiue Syllogisme is A Demonstratiue Syllogisme is that which giveth or bringeth certaine knowledge of the conclusion If we will define it more exactly we must define it thus A demonstratiue Syllogisme is that which prooveth that the attribute of the conclusion is truely attributed vnto the subject by a Meane that must be the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute of the said conclusion These two sorts of causes were called externall in the Chapter of Causes aboue mentioned because they are no parts of the effect nor of the thing compounded though sometimes the efficient cause be in the very same subject As the soule of man is the cause of the sense in man and the thicknesse of gold is the cause of the weight of it In these examples the efficient cause and the effect are in the same subject The third Chapter What questions are demonstrable SVch questions wherein the attribute is a substance cannot bee prooved by demonstration because substances haue no certaine efficient cause proper vnto them For the will of God is an vniversall cause common to all things and by consequent it can be no Meane in a demonstratiue Syllogisme Againe such questions or conclusions wherein the attribute is a mutable or casuall accident cannot be proved by demonstration because these accidents haue no certaine and assured cause As Philip is rich Bucephalus halteth But those questions are demonstrable whose attribute is a proper and immutable accident whereof the next efficient or finall cause may be given For example these questions may be prooved by demonstration A transparent bodie is without colour Eunuches are never bald Fixt Starres doe twinckle The Moone suffers obscuritie Of all estates Oligarchie is the most subiect to civill warre Lines paralell never meet All bodies compounded of Elements are corruptible Vnder the scorching Zone it is very hot For the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute of these questiōs may be given The fourth Chapter What the propositions of a demonstratiue Syllogisme ought to be THe Demonstration must consist of necessary propositions among which those are the most necessarie which are called Immediate There be two sorts of immediate propositions that is to say such as are without any middle For some are immediate in regard of the subject and others are immediate in regard of the cause Immediate propositions in regard of the subject are when the attribute agreeth next of all and immediately to the subject so as a neerer subject cannot be given In such propositions the attribute agreeth with the subject because it is such a subject For example if I say that a horse hath sense this attribute agrees not next and immediately to a horse for there is a neerer subject namely an Animal vnto the which sense belongeth But if I say that a horse neigheth this agreeth next and immediately to a horse as he is a horse and not by reason of any other neerer subject Immediate propositions in regard of the cause are when an attribute is so neerely joyned to the subject as that the cause or reason cannot bee yeelded why it should be so For example here is a Demonstration Whatsoever hath a sensitiue soule hath touching Every animal hath a sensitiue soule Therefore every animal hath touching In this Syllogisme the conclusion is immediate in regard of the subject but not in regard of the cause For in this Syllogisme the Meane is the cause of the conclusion But the two propositions are immediate both in regard of the cause as also of the subject for nothing can be alledged as a cause of
things Alike or vnlike Page 71. Chapter 14. Of things Opposit Page 75. Chapter 15. Comparison of things Page 82. Chapter 16. Comparison of the Probabilitie or Likelihood Page 85. Chapter 17. Of testimony Page 88. Chapter 18. Of the Vse or Practice of the Precedent Doctrine Page 91. The third Booke Of Enuntiations Chapter â— VVHat an Enuntiation is and the parts thereof Page 105. Chapter â— Of the kinds of Enuntiation Page 109. Chapter â— Of the Opposition of Enuntiations Page 113. Chapter 4. Of the Conversion of Enuntiations Page 117. The fourth Booke Of a Syllogisme Chapter 1. WHat a Syllogisme is Also what a Conclusion is and a Question or Probleme and of the parts thereof Page 121. Chapter 2. How to make a Syllogisme and of the parts of it Page 123. Chapter 3. The naturall reason vpon which a Syllogisme is grounded Page 126. Chapter 4. Of the Figures of a Syllogisme Page 127. Chapter 5. Generall Rules common to all Figures Page 128. Chapter 6. Particular Rules to each Figure Page 134. Chapter 7. Certaine Artificiall words which serue to shew how many wayes wee may argue in each Figure and the meanes to convert the second and third figure into the first Page 142. Chapter 8. Of an Enthymeme Page 146. Chapter 9. Of Induction and Example Page 148. Chapter 10. Of the Enumeration of parts Page 150. Chapter 11. Of a Dilemma Page 152. Chapter 12. Of a Sorites or heaping Syllogisme Page 154. Chapter 13. Of Conditionall or Hypotheticall Syllogismes Page 155. Chapter 14. Of Disjunctiue Syllogismes Page 157. The fift Booke Of the Master-peece of Logick called DEMONSTRATION Chapter 1. VVHat Science is Page 161. Chapter 2. What a Demonstration or a Demonstratiue Syllogisme is Pages 163. Chapters 3. What questions are demonstrable Pages 164. Chapter 4. What the propositions of a demonstratiue Syllogisme ought to be Page 166. Chapters 5. A speciall note how to know a perfect demonstration Pages 169. Chapters 6. Of an Imperfect demonstration Pages 170. The sixt Booke Of Sophismes or Fallacies Chapters 1. OF Fallacies in words Pages 175. Chapters 2. Of fallacies in the matter Pages 181. Chapters 3. The fallacie by Accident Pages 182. Chapters 4. The fallacie which taketh a thing as simply true which is not so but onely in some respect Pages 183. Chapters 5. The fallacie supposing that which is questioned Pages 184. Chapters 6. The fallacie of Inconsequence Pages 184. Chapters 7. The fallacie whereby a thing is taken for a cause which is not Pages 186. Chapters 8. The fallacie which mingleth many Interrogations as if they were but one Pages 187. Chapters 9. The fallacie which is committed through the Ignorance of that which contradicteth the question Pages 188. Chapters 10. Of the faults in Syllogismes Pages 190. ERRATA PAge 42. line 19. for by blunt hornes reade by the blunt hornes p. 49. l. 23. for Now r. None p. 50. l. 13. for ana xe reade an axe page 55. betweene line 10. and 11. put Accidents into other Accidents p. 80. l. 7. for certaine r. contrary THE ELEMENTS OF LOGICK The first Booke which treateth OF SIMPLE NOTIONS The first Chapter What Logick is How many sorts of Notions there be in the minde of man LOGICK is an Art which giueth rules to argue well and to discerne truth from falshood To be able to form an argument and to frame a good reason we must know that all the Notions or Conceptions in mans vnderstanding are either Simple or Compound Simple Notions are such as are expressed by one word onely As horse man whitenes to see to runne c. Compound Notions are such as are expressed by an Enuntiation or Proposition which affirmeth or denieth something As Man is reasonable God is no lyar Of many Propositions knit together an Argument or Syllogisme is made by those meanes and rules which shall be set downe hereafter The second Chapter How many sorts of simple Notions there are Of Things singular and vniversall Also of Substance and Accident THere are as many simple Notions as there be things in the world Of Things some be singular and some vniversall Singular things are those which are one in Number As Frederick Peter this horse this tree Vniversall things comprehend and containe the Singulars For an vniversall is a gathering together of many Singulars vnder one nature common to all As horse man tree vnder which words considered in generall wee comprehend all horses men trees Singulars are knowne by sense but vniversals are comprehended by the vnderstanding Therfore bruit beasts know onely Singular things Singulars in Philosophie are called Individuals because they cannot be divided into two parts keeping the same name As Alexander cannot be divided into two Alexanders nor one horse into two horses A whole compounded of parts alike As water blood wood are not called Individuals because they may be divided into parts which may keepe the name of the whole For every drop of water is water and of a great peece of wood every parcell is wood But if you will turne these things into Individuals you must add the name of the measure For one pint of water cannot be divided into two pintes nor one acre of ground into two acres All things whether Singular or Vniversall are either Substances or Accidents A Substance is that which subsisteth of it selfe as man water earth c. An Accident is that which cannot subsist by it selfe but must haue a subject or substance to vphold it and vnto which it must adhere as whitenes swiftnes wisedome heat For whitenes can haue no being if it subsisteth not in some subject as in snow or in the skinne so heat is an accident to fire swiftnes is an accident to an horse wisedome is an accident to the vnderstanding Accidents are sometimes expressed by a Substantiue as iustice beautie and sometimes by an Adjectiue as iust faire In the first manner accidents are called Abstracts or Separated In the second they are called Concretes or Conjoyned For he that names iustice or beautie considers justice or beautie without any certaine Subject But he that names iust or â—â—ire considers justice and beautie as â—dhering to a certain Subject that is cloathed therewith Common custome oft confounds â—hese things saying the true the â—lack the sweet in stead of saying the â—ruth the blacknes the sweetnesse Now because there are divers and â—undry kindes of accidents the Phiâ—osophers haue ranked them into â—ine Orders or Classes of things vnâ—o which Substance being added â—here are ten Classes which the Phiâ—osophers call Categories or Prediâ—aments So that there is nothing in â—he world which is done either by Nature or by Art by Councell or Chance which may not be referred â—o and contained in some one of â—hese Categories The third Chapter The Names of the ten Categories The ten Categories are these 1. Substance as man horse 2. Quantitie as length breadth 3. Qualitie as swiftnesse whitenesse roundnesse 4. Relation or Respect as to be a Father or
statua is a living creature Therefore no statua is a man You must change the assumption and say No living creature is a statua And set it in the place of the proposition thus No living creature is a statua All men are living creatures Whence the conclusion followeth well Therefore no man is a statua Which is the same conclusion but onely converted simply Rules for the third Figure In the third figure the Meane is the subject in both propositions The assumption must be affirmatiue as in the first figure The conclusion is alwayes particular and cannot be vniversall The naturall reason hereof is because if two things are attributed to the same thing it followeth not that these two things agree alwaies together but onely it followeth that they agree sometimes and in certaine subjects As if to be bright and round belongs to the Sunne it followeth not that whatsoever is round must bee bright So to be reasonable and to haue two feet belongs to man whence it followeth not that whatsoever hath two feet must be reasonable but onely that something which hath two feet is reasonable The Syllogismes of this figure are reduced to the first by converting the assumption As All horses neigh. All horses haue foure feet Therefore something that hath foure feet neigheth If you convert the assumption How to reduce the Syllogismes of the third figure to the first saying Something that hath foure feet is a horse This Syllogisme will be in the first figure But if the proposition be particular ac in this Syllogisme Some Apostle is damned All Apostles are sent of God Therefore some one that is sent of God is damned Now to reduce this Syllogisme to the first figure you must convert the proposition and say Some damned persons is an Apostle And then put it in the place of the assumption in this manner All Apostles are sent of God Some damned person is an Apostle Therefore some damned person is sent of God Which is the very same conclusion but simply converted The seventh Chapter Certaine artificiall words which serue to shew how many wayes wee may argue in each figure and how the second and third figure may be converted into the first TO helpe the memory Logicians haue found out certaine artificiall words which serue to shew how many waies a man may argue in each figure The words are these 1. BARBARA CELARENT DARII FERIO 2. CESARE CAMESTRES FESTINO BAROCO 3. DARAPTI FELAPTON DISAMIS DATISI BOCARDO FERISON To vnderstand the vse of these words you must note that every one of these words hath but three Syllables the first wherof signifies the proposition the second the assumption and the third the conclusion Againe note that in all these words there are but foure Vowels namely these A. E. I. O. A signifieth an vniversall affirmatiue proposition E signifieth an vniversall negatiue proposition I signifieth a particular affirmatiue proposition O signifieth a particular negatiue proposition The Syllogismes which are made in the first figure are noted by these words Barbara Celarent Darij Ferio The word BARBARA intimates that whensoever the two propositions in the first figure shall be A that is vniversall affirmatiue the conclusion shall likewise be A that is an vniversall affirmatiue So the word CELARENT signifieth that whensoever the proposition in the first figure shall be E that is an vniversall negatiue and the assumption A that is an vniversall affirmatiue the conclusion shall be E that is an vniversall negatiue So likewise of all the other words The Syllogismes of the second figure are noted by these words Cesare Camestres Festino Baroco The word FESTINO intimates that whensoever the proposition in the second figure shall be E that is an vniversall negatiue the assumption I that is a particular affirmatiue the conclusiō shall be O that is a particular negatiue As FES No compounded thing is eternall TI Some thing in man is eternall NO Therfore something in man is not compounded Note that in these foure words the last syllables are alwayes either E or O to shew that the conclusion must alwayes be negatiue The Syllogismes of the third figure are noted by these words Darapti Felapton Disamis Datisi Bocardo Ferison and haue the same vse For example the word FELAPTON signifieth that if the proposition in the third figure be E that is an vniversall negatiue and the assumption A that is an vniversall affirmatiue the conclusion must be O that is a particular negatiue As FE No Batt hath feathers LAP All Batts flie TON Therefore something that flies hath no feathers Note that in all these six words the last syllables haue either I or O to shew that the conclusion in the third figure must alwayes be particular The Consonants of these same words are not without their speciall vse For they serue to know how the Syllogismes of the second and third figure may be reduced to the first To this end serveth the first capitall letter For Cesare and Camestres are reduced to Celarent Darapti Disamis Datisi are reduced to Darij Festino Felapton Ferison are reduced to Ferio Baroco and Bocardo cannot be reduced because one of the propositions is a particular negatiue which cannot enter into the first figure S signifieth that the proposition which is noted with an S must be simply converted As in Cesare and Datisi P signifieth that the proposition must be converted by Accident that is to say that the vniversall affirmatiue must be converted into a particular affirmatiue As in Darapti and Felapton M signifieth that the propositions must be transposed and must change their place As in Camestres and Disamis whereof we haue given examples The eight Chapter Of an Enthymeme AN Enthymeme is nothing els but a Syllogisme whereof one of the propositions is suppressed either for brevities sake or for some deceipt For brevitie as God sinneth not Therefore God is no lyar Or Nothing that corrupteth man can be the chiefe good Therfore Voluptuousnesse is not the chiefe good For deceipt as This Common-wealth is the greatest Therefore it is the best Or Whatsoever troubleth a Common-wealth must be banished Therefore the Gospell must be banished In these imperfect Syllogismes that proposition is suppressed which is most odious and wherein the falsehood lieth namely Every Common-wealth that is the greatest is the best As also this The Gospell troubleth a Common-wealth Somtimes to make the speech more smooth and currant we put the conclusion in the first place As The estate of Oligarchy is the worst of all Because it is most subiect to civill warre Rhetoricians call Enthymemes proofes grounded vpon probable signes As Milo killed Claudius For he hated him before Or This man is learned For he is pale and hath many books These proofes are of no force except they be in great number For signes and conjectures which haue no force being alone become forcible when there are many of them together The ninth Chapter Of Induction and of Example INduction
their truths Sometimes the efficient and finall causes are linked together with a long chaine As Vnder the Aequator the aire is very hot because it is very subtill The aire is very subtill because the Sunne doth rarefie it very much The Sunne rarefies the aire because the beames fall in right angles The beames fall in right angles because the Sunne is there in the Zenith Thus it is in the finall cause The Lungs draw in the aire to refresh the heat of the heart The heat of the heart is refreshed to keepe the Temperature The Temperature is kept to preserue life So many causes so many demonstrations But the last where also the chiefest and last cause stands for the Meane is the noblest of all because it can no further be demonstrated and the two propositions are immediate every manner of way The fifth Chapter A speciall note to know a perfect Demonstration OF all the markes of a perfect Demonstration this is the most evident when it may be converâ—ed or reduced to a definition For we haue said heretofore that the definition of a proper accident is compounded of three parts namely L. 2. c. 8. of the Genus of that which is defined and of the proper subject and of the cause thereof As the definition of Death is the destruction of the life of the creature by the extinguishing of vitall heat Out of this definition a demonstration may be framed making the Subject of this accident to be the subject of the conclusion the Genus to be the attribute and the cause the Meane As thus Whensoever the vitall heat is extinguished life is destroyed But in a living creature the vitall heat is extinguished Therefore in a living creature life is destroyed The same may be said of these definitions following Sleepe is the heavinesse of a living creature by the cessation of the common sense Thunder is a noyse in the clouds by the breaking out of the fire The sixth Chapter Of an Imperfect Demonstration WEE haue shewed that a perfect demonstration is that which proveth by the next efficient or finall cause of the attribute that the attribute of the conclusion agrees with the subject If any of these perfections be wanting the demonstration is the weaker and lesse perfect If the Meane be not the next cause of the attribute but onely a remote cause then is the demonstration weaker and more imperfect And such demonstrations for the most part conclude negatiuely For example Where there is no opposition of contrary qualities there is no death But in the heavens there is no opposition of contrary qualities Therefore in heaven there is no death Or He that is of a cold temperature will never be bald But Eunuches are of a cold temperature Therefore Eunuches will never be bald In these demonstrations the propositions are not immediate For the Meane is not the next cause of the attribute To haue no contrary qualities is not the next cause of not dying but a remote cause for the next cause of not dying in mans body is the continual preservation of the humors in an equall temperature and the cause hereof is to haue no contrarietie or combate betweene the elementarie qualities in the bodie Thus the cause why Eunuches become not bald is become the radicall humor of the haires is not spent and the remote cause is because they haue but little heat In these demonstrations the propositions are not immediate for the Meane is not the next cause of the attribute And though the propositions be immediate yet if the Meane be not the cause but the effect of the attribute then it shall be a lesse perfect demonstration proving not the effect by the cause but the cause by the effect This kinde of demonstration shewes not why the conclusion is but onely that it is As All that loue God are beloved of God But all that haue faith in Christ loue God Therefore all that haue faith in Christ are beloved of God The Meane is to loue God which is not the cause but the effect of the loue which God beareth vnto vs which loue is the attribute of the conclusion in this demonstration wherein the cause is proved by the effect whereas in a perfect demonstration we proue effects by their causes Therefore this imperfect demonstration proveth onely that the thing is but sheweth not why it is The effect may very well be the cause of knowing but not of being As the smoake which we see come out of a chimney may be a cause to make vs know that there is fire in the house but it is not the cause of the fire but onely the effect And the vnequall beating of the pulse is not the cause of the Ague but it is a cause which makes vs know that such a one hath an Ague ¶ The sixt Booke OF SOPHISMES OR FALLACIES The first Chapter Of Fallacies in words ALL Fallacies or Sophismes committed in disputing are either in the Words or in the Matter Fallacies in words are of six kindes 1. Aequivocation 2. Amphibologie 3. Deceipt by Composition 4. Deceipt by Division 5. Deceipt in the Accent or Pronuntiation 6. And deceipt in the Figure of the word 1. Of Aequivocation Decipt by Aequivocation is when the Meane is a doubtfull word taken in the proposition one way and in the assumption another way As That which hath neither beginning nor ending God created not The roundnesse of the Heavens hath neither beginning nor ending Therfore the roundnesse of the Heavens God created not In the proposition beginning and ending is taken for continuance of time but in the assumption it is taken for the beginning and ending of a figure Or thus He that saith that thou liuest saith true He that saith that thou art a goose saith that thou livest Therefore he that saith that thou art a goose saith true In the proposition it is meant of an expresse saying but in the assumption of a saying by consequence Thus a man of great capacitie may be taken for a learned man and sometimes for one whose stomacke is able to containe much wine The same fallacie may be committed also when a word is otherwise taken in the propositions then in the conclusion 2. Of Amphibologie Amphibologie is an ambiguous constructioÌ„ making the sense doubtfull As Faith alone iustifieth It cannot be knowne whether the meaning be that faith being alone justifieth or els that faith justifieth onely In the first sense it is false for faith alone without good works is no true faith and by consequent justifieth not But in the second sense it is true that faith onely justifieth because it onely hath the propertie to justifie So it is true in one sense that the eye alone seeth but it is false in another sense that the eye seeth alone For an eye that is out of the head seeth not 3. The fallacie in Composition The fallacie in Composition is when things are taken as conjoyned which cannot be true but in